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“The Finders”: No Easy Answers // Brainsturbator

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Meta InformationAuthor: thirtysevenDate Created: February 13, 2007Last Modified: June 30, 2008Category: Article Highlights•Not interested? Skip to a random article.
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This is going to be an ugly article. It’s a topic I still don’t want to cover, but unrelated threads led me back to this information and now I feel obligated to share it. The story is dumb simple: local police get a strange phone call from concerned citizens down at the park. Some white van pulled up and two impeccably dressed men unloaded a bunch of barely-dressed, dirt-filthy little kids. They’re at the playground and behaving strangely—as if things needed to get any weirder.

So the police investigate and the men refuse to speak about what they’re doing. The children say they’re headed to Mexico for a special school. US Customs agents get involved and discover that the men are linked to a Washingon DC area group called “The Finders,” and it turns out The Finders have some CIA connections. The CIA steps in, says the investigation has become ”an internal matter,” and the entire case gets dropped.

Like I said, this is going to be an ugly article, because the most interesting and disturbing aspect of this story is that it’s all true.

Meet the Finders
The fact that you can find dozens of answers to the simple question “What is ‘The Finders’ anyway?” is very much by design. They are basically an intentional community of human chameleons who experiment with constantly shifting belief systems. That’s the best summation I can give you, and it’s a troubling one for me, because it could just as easily be describing my circle of friends: artists, revolutionaries, visionaries and glorious weirdos. One key difference, though, is that we’ve never sacrificed any goats. Take a look at this description of The Finders, taken from an interview we’ll be exploring later:

The Finders have more-or-less rational explanations for even the most bizarre behavior attributed to them, especially in the context of a group that exists to challenge social paradigms. Even the goat sacrifices, known as “Goatgate” to the group, have been attributed to the Finders just play-acting at being witches and warlocks, another “game” to dumbfound lookers-on. Many of the Finders’ games serve as parody or put-on.

“The Finders” is especially tricky to define when you consider it’s alleged founder and core member states, flatly, that it doesn’t exist. “There’s no such thing as the Finders,” says Marion Pettie. “It’s just a group term for people who like to hang around me.”

Meet Marion Pettie
Marion Pettie is a cipher unto himself. Earlier I quoted from the intro to a fascinating interview with Pettie.

Pettie: I just keep open house. That’s about all I do. It changes as people show up. Basically, we have about 600 acres up there and a few houses and people who are here more or less permanently now-They spend part of the time in this town [Culpepper] and part of the time in DC and part of the time up in the mountains, and another part traveling all over the world.

Q: But it’s still basically the same drift in, drift out kind of thing.

Pettie: Nobody signs anything.

Q: It’s an interesting philosophical difference with the culture at large.

Pettie: Personally, I’d say the only thing that has been different is --I’m closest to being Taoist.

The famous Patch Adams offers a very glowing summation of Marion David Pettie:

“Marion Pettie [is] very intelligent, extremely well-read, a perceptive thinker who gathered around him over-educated people who find current society, as I do, not very interesting. They dropped out of whatever it was they were doing to play games under Pettie’s direction. The anthropological, psychological, sociological game of life with each other. Never to my knowledge have they done drugs of any kind. They like playing games, more in their heads than in their hearts. This is not Scientology. I know lots of Finders who have left. We get together. We laugh and joke about it. They’re probably laughing about all this right now. Marion Pettie is not an angel. He’s not a devil. He’s a regular person, unless a regular person is someone who is bored with his job, his life and is dissatisfied with his life. If that’s the definition, then I guess he’s not a regular person.”

The Incident in Florida
The police had received an anonymous telephone call relative two well-dressed white men wearing suits and ties in Myers Park, (Tallahassee), apparently watching six dirty and unkempt children in the playground area. HOULIHAN and AMMERMAN were near a 1980 Blue Dodge van bearing Virginia license number XHW-557, the inside of which was later described as foul-smelling filled with maps, books, letters, with a mattress situated to the rear of the van which appeared as if it were used as a bed, and the overall appearance of the van gave the impression that all eight persons were living in it. The children were covered with insect bites, were very dirty, most of the children were not wearing underwear and all of the children had not been bathed in many days. The men were arrested and charged with multiple counts of child abuse and lodged in the Leon County Jail. Once in custody the men were somewhat evasive in their answers to the police regarding the children and stated only that they both were the children’s teachers and that all were enroute to Mexico to establish a school for brilliant children.

Two guys and six kids sleeping on one mattress is disturbing. As for little kids running around “covered in insect bites,” “not wearing underwear,” who “had not bathed in several days,” I find it odd that someone would find that odd. I guess that just means I’m a Vermonter, though.

One thing I would like to point out is the earliest discrepancy in the case: the vehicle itself. Please note the following quote:

HOULIHAN and AMMERMAN were near a 1980 Blue Dodge van bearing Virginia license number XHW-557,

That was from the initial, local police report. With that in mind, read the next source document in the case, the US Customs Report:

U.S. Customs was contacted because the police officers involved suspected the adults of being involved in child pornography and knew the Customs Service to have a network of child pornography investigators, and of the existence of the Child Pornography and Protection Unit. SS/A [deleted] stated the two adults were well dressed white males. They had custody of six white children (boys and girls), ages three to six years. The children were observed to be poorly dressed, bruised, dirty, and behaving like wild animals in a public park in Tallahassee. The police were notified by a concerned citizen and all eight persons were taken into custody. The subjects were living out of a white 1979 Dodge van, Virginia license no. XHW 557. Upon being taken into custody, the adult white males refused to cooperate, one of whom produced a “business” card with a name on one side and a statement on the other. The statement indicated that the bearer knew his constitutional rights to remain silent and that he intended to do so. Upon interviewing the children, the police officers found that they could not adequately identify themselves or their custodians. Further, they stated that they were enroute to Mexico to attend a school for “smart kids.”

The next line should give the reader a sense of where things are headed:

SS/A [deleted] was further advised the children were unaware of the function and purpose of telephones, televisions and toilets, and that the children had stated they were not allowed to live indoors and were only given food as a reward.


Marion Pettie Explains it All
From the same Kenn Thomas interview:

Pettie: Would you like to hear about it?

Q: I’d like to hear everything you have to say about it, actually.

Pettie: It’s very simple, we had the kids and the general idea was that they would go up to the country up there, twenty miles from here, and they would go to school, a self-governing school. Adults would be available to them, intelligent, well-balanced people. And they would never be alone with it kid so that no one could accuse them of any pedophiles stuff. At least two would have to be there. As far as I know, they did all that. Then they were just taking them on a camping trip to Florida. There were four intellectuals with them and they just happen to drive into a park and somebody was suspicious because the two men were well dressed. They had four people with them on the trip and they were all well-educated, well-balanced people. So I don’t think there was any funny stuff going on.

Q: There were just police suspicions?

Pettie: Well, somebody called up and said, “there’s two well-dressed men with some kids in a van over there,” So the police come and then they take them down and by their standards these well-dressed men weren’t answering the questions properly- So then they called Washington and somebody in the Washington police says, “Yeah, we know those people. They’re Finders and we’re just about to find out what they’re up to up here and we’ll use this as an excuse to go in there and rig them.”


Things Fall Apart
Although it feels like I’ve spent the past three years of my life hunched over a computer in one capacity or another, I do have a great deal of “life experience” under my belt. In recent conversations with a great many people, apparently I’ve packed in a good deal more “life experience” than most people my age, so let me say a few things. I know that hippie communes get accused of all manner of horrific crimes. In 1984, here in Vermont, an Island Pond community called the “12 Tribes” had their homes raided and all of their children seized by the police.

I know that false accusations of child abuse are made with alarming regularity. I also know that real child abuse seldom ever gets exposed or punished. I also know—and boy, do I ever wish I could un-know this one—that “Satanic Ritual Abuse” is not a boogeyman for paranoid and gullible Christians. It is a perfectly real and utterly monstrous fact of American life, probably the lowest point of our nation’s underbelly.

I wanted to investigate this case from a new angle—one that didn’t presume guilt, not to mention one that didn’t presume CIA complicity and cover-up. The facts of the case leave me no further room for sympathies and doubts. Marion Pettie’s explanation of the incident in Florida is disturbingly superficial, and what’s more, it blatantly contradicts many reported aspects of the case. (Nearly all of them, actually.)

Why would children on a camping trip say they were en route to Mexico for a “special school”?

“It’s very simple,” says Marion Pettie, “we had the kids....” and thus Pettie makes the single most bizarre and worrisome aspect of the incident disappear. How did they get the kids? Who were the kids? Why did they have the kids?

Some Rather Damning Evidence
The black core of this whole article is a US Customs report, dated , filed by Ramon J. Martinez.

During the execution of the warrant at 3918/20 W St., I was able to observe and access the entire building ... There were several subjects on the premises. Only one was deemed to be connected with the Finders. [He] was located in a room equipped with several computers, printers, and numerous documents. Cursory examination of the documents revealed detailed instructions for obtaining children for unspecified purposes. The instructions included the impregnation of female members of the community known as the Finders, purchasing children, trading, and kidnapping.

There were telex messages using MCI account numbers between a computer terminal believed to be located in the same room, and others located across the country and in foreign locations. One such telex specifically ordered the purchase of two children in Hong Kong to be be arranged through a contact in the Chinese Embassy there. Another telex expressed interest in ‘bank secrecy’ situations. Other documents identified interests in high-tech transfers to the United Kingdom, numerous properties under the control of the Finders, a keen interest in terrorism, explosives, and the evasion of law enforcement.

Also found in the ‘computer room’ was a detailed summary of the events surrounding the arrest and taking into custody of the two adults and six children in Tallahassee the previous night. There were also a set of instructions which appeared to be broadcast via a computer network which advised the participants to move ‘the children’ and keep them moving through different jurisdictions, and instructions on how to avoid police attention

This is already plenty ugly enough, but now we return to the goats:

On Friday, 2/6/87, I met Detective Bradley at the warehouse on 4th Street, N.E. I duly advised my acting group supervisor, SS/A Don Bludworth. I was again granted unlimited access to the premises. I was able to observe numerous documents which described explicit sexual conduct between the members of the community known as Finders. I also saw a large collection of photographs of unidentified persons. Some of the photographs were nudes, believed to be of members of the Finders. There were numerous photos of children, some nude, at least one of which was a photo of a child ‘on display’ and appearing to accent the child’s genitals.

I was only able to examine a very small amount of the photos at this time. However, one of the officers presented me with a photo album for my review. The album contained a series of photos of adults and children dressed in white sheets participating in a ‘blood ritual.’ The ritual centered around the execution of at least two goats. The photos portrayed the execution, disembowelment, skinning and dismemberment of the goats at the hands of the children. This included the removal of the testes of a male goat, the discovery of a female goat’s “womb” and the “baby goats” inside the womb, and the presentation of a goat’s head to one of the children.

Final US Customs Report, Verbatim
To: Resident Agent in Charge Date: 04/13/87

On Thursday, February 5, 1987, Senior Special Agent Harrold and I assisted the Washington D.C. Metropolitan Police Department (MPD) with two search warrants involving the possible sexual exploitation of children. During the course of the search warrants, numerous documents were discovered which appeared to be concerned with international trafficking in children, high tech transfer to the United Kingdom, and international transfer of currency.

DETAILS OF INVESTIGATION:

On March 31, 1987, I contacted Detective Jim Bradley of the Washington, DC Metropolitan Police Department (MPD). I was to meet with Detective Bradley to review the documents seized pursuant to two search warrants executed in January, 1987. The meeting was to take place on April 2 or 3, 1987.

On April 2, 1987, I arrived at MPD at approximately 9:00 a.m. Detective Bradley was not available. I spoke to a third party who was willing to discuss the case with me on a strictly “off the record” basis.

I was advised that all the passport data had been turned over to the State Department for their investigation. The State Department in turn, advised the MPD that all travel and use of the passports by the holders of the passports was within the law and no action would be taken. This included travel to Moscow, North Korea, and North Vietnam from the late 1950s to mid 1970s.

The individual further advised me of circumstances which indicated that the investigation into the activity of the Finders had become a CIA internal matter. The MPD report has been classified SECRET and was not available for review. I was advised that the FBI had withdrawn from the investigation several weeks prior and that the FBI Foreign Counter Intelligence Division had directed MPD not to advise the FBI Washington Field Office of anything that had transpired.

No further information will be available. No further action will be taken.

US News & World Report, December 27, 1993
One of the unresolved questions involves allegations that the Finders are somehow linked to the Central Intelligence Agency. Custom Service documents reveal that in 1987, when Customs agents sought to examine the evidence gathered by Washington,D.C. police, they were told that the Finders investigation ‘had become an internal matter.’ The police report on the case had been classified secret. Even now, Tallahassee police complain about the handling of the Finders investigation by D.C. police. ‘They dropped this case,’ one Tallahassee investigator says, ‘like a hot rock.’ D.C. police will not comment on the matter. As for the CIA, ranking officials describe allegations about links between the intelligence agency and the Finders as ‘hogwash,’ perhaps the result of a simple mix up with D.C. police.

Is There a CIA Connection?
Pettie: Some investigators back in the 60s tailed me for four years. At first they said they thought I was a dope dealer big time because, I didn’t use it myself. Then they decided that I was a front for the CIA. They asked I was a front for the CIA. Of course I wouldn’t have told them anyway, but I asked those people, they said they ran the name through the computer and they said, “No, we don’t own that guy.” So then the investigator says, “I’ve been working on you for four years and I can’t figure out what you’re doing. What the hell are you doing?” So the point is that actually I’m not doing anything, just enjoying life and working on good ideas all of the time. I considered when I was 12 years old that my mission in life was to know everything and do nothing.

Q: What do you make then of these stories that connect the Finders up to a pedophilia ring in the CIA?

Pettie: The pedophiles and all that stuff..

Q: That’s all smear?

Pettie: I just kept open house to a lot of the counter-intelligence and intelligence people over the years. I have been reported to their security officers probably plenty of times for trying to find out what’s going on in the world. I’ve tried all of my life to get behind the scenes in the CIA. I sent my wife in as a spy, to spy on the CIA for me. She was very happy about it, happy to tell me everything she found out. She was in a key place, you know with the records, and she could find out things for me. And my son worked for Air America which was a proprietary of the CIA. There are some connections, but not to me personally.

Q: But do you have any suspicions ... the Finders sounds like a real open group that attracts a lot different elements ... disinformation stories could be planted by certain elements to try to connect it to pedophilia…

Pettie: The reason the CIA wouldn’t hire me is that they wouldn’t have the control factor over me. That’s one of the things. They may have used me at some time without me knowing it. They have categories of unwitting agents. Maybe you two were sent here by them. But I’m pretty open about this kind of stuff, though. They wouldn’t hire me as a contract employee because 1 wouldn’t sign the papers. Anybody that’s a contract employee must sign an agreement and then they pay you out the money. Well, I don’t need the money, but I am trying to find out all about them. Basically, the one sentence about the CIA is that I have been studying them since before they were born, I was studying them back in the 30s. It was ONI back then [Office of Naval Intelligence], and then the Coordinator of Information comes on, and after that it turns. into the OSS and OSS turns into the CIAU and the CIAU turns into the CIA. So I’ve been studying that all of my life. But I wasn’t personally working for them.


Last Word: Patch Adams
I don’t wear underwear. I don’t shower that often, either. I have no intentions of sending my kids to public school. I am still troubled the story of the Finders because so much of it resonates with my own life experience. Because I know how much being “different” will get you in trouble—I know how people will lie about you when you’re a weirdo.

So leave the reader on an ambiguous note—because I want you to be uncomfortable, after all—let’s take a look at one of the supporters of the Finders, and view this hall of dark mirrors from yet another angle: Patch Adams, who has known The Finders and Pettie for “over 25 years,” by his estimation.

An unconventional and controversial figure in the medical world himself, Adams affirmed that he has found no instance of child abuse among the Finders. He dismissed the notion that the group included pedophiles and characterized it instead as one of “over-educated” eccentrics presenting an alternative to social norms.

I am reminded of the old Bread & Puppet festivals where little kids were running around naked all the time. Not because we were involved in some pedophile orgy, but simply because little kids don’t need clothing. I am also reminded of being present for the birth and death of countless animals, something fewer and fewer Americans can relate to. I’ve never sacrificed any goats, but I’ve certainly skinned pigs and dressed down deer carcasses. Satan was not involved in either of those operations, I might add. (Then again, we weren’t “dressed in white sheets”, either.)

Patch’s take on the “goat sacrifice” should, I hope, give the reader pause:

“What other evidence have they uncovered? Ritual blood-letting?” Of the goat slaughter, he added, “On the farm it’s called harvest. It’s animal husbandry, a practice thirteen thousand years old. Farmers traditionally include their children, particularly their male children in the annual fall butchering of livestock. I’ve met city people who think milk comes from a carton. Urbanites are often ignorant of the realities of food production.”

“Their way of child-rearing isn’t mine. Yes, they’re strange. Yes, they’re maybe misguided, but there are a lot of other kinds of neglect out there. If their children have been neglected, it wasn’t meant to be neglect. They mean to give their children enriching experiences. This could be a lesson of survival. If you wanted to show our society it is messed up, this certainly will do it. ”


Further Reading and Source Documents
We’ve got a followup with some documents over at Skilluminati Research. CLICK HERE to visit.

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.11 responses to "“The Finders”: No Easy Answers"

Feb 13, 2007 at 7:27 AM
Dick Hefacheese says...

.Dude sounds like L. Ron to me

Interesting post though thanks


Feb 13, 2007 at 12:30 PM
MindSet says...

.Fascinatingly disturbing article.

I have found simular stories echo’s in Peter Levenda’s books ‘Sinister Forces’, and it also seems that famed author and UFO contactee Whitley Strieber, may also have been a victim of ‘the finders’.

read Whitley’s journal entries on the subject:

http://www.unknowncountry.com/journal/?id=255

http://www.unknowncountry.com/journal/?id=253


Feb 13, 2007 at 1:29 PM
Nonlocal says...

.Creepy.

Goes hand in hand, somewhat, with the stories I read in “The men who stared at goats”

So what happened with them? Looks like the latest interview with Pettie is in ‘93, and when I looked for him on le googel I saw a year of death as ‘04.

Why does this remind me of rumours I’ve heard about set worshippers involved in the CIA?


Feb 13, 2007 at 7:01 PM
thirtyseven says...

.^^I dunno about Set worshippers inna CIA, but we have covered Micheal Aquino before, who was Temple of Set as well as military over in Presidio, and was involved with a disturbing SRA case in day care over there.

http://news.skilluminati.com/?p=13


Feb 14, 2007 at 12:55 AM
erno says...

.“Farmers traditionally include their children, particularly their male children in the annual fall butchering of livestock.” This explanation would make sense if there was some indication that the Finder"‘“s children are their own. And about Pettie, in the interview he seems to talk about his brushes with the CIA as if they were casual, just normal dealings is all. But his relationship with the agency seems more extant than most people’s. He also brings up Reichians. philip a. centaur posted some information about Reichians and children at the Rigorous Intuition message board, nothing flattering, but perhaps relevant.


Feb 14, 2007 at 1:39 AM
erno says...

.Not to push this too hard, but I should provide a link for those without a map, to be polite you know. Let’s see if this uses html links: philipacentaur link


Feb 14, 2007 at 8:07 AM
Miqel says...

.I seem to remember that there was some connection between the Finders and the “Franklin Coverup” case involving a pedophile prostitution ring frequented by Washington insiders and possibly the White House. Another case that was dropped and the files sealed
... for our own protection as it were.

from Wiki

“The Franklin Coverup Scandal began on June 29, 1989, when the front page of the Washington Times bore the headline Homosexual Prostitution Inquiry ensnares VIPs with Reagan, Bush, and officially ended when a grand jury concluded that the charges were a “carefully crafted hoax”, although the scandal still feeds conspiracy theories to the present day.”
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_King


Feb 14, 2007 at 7:34 PM
Mort says...

.Heres some more info and files on this subject from the Lads at Rigorous Intuition

http://p216.ezboard.com/frigorousintuitionfrm9.showMessage?topicID=4.topic


Feb 16, 2007 at 7:00 PM
Natalie says...

.So how does the Satanic ritual abuse come into play? Do you really think there is a lot of this going on, you know, in a highly organized fashion?


Feb 17, 2007 at 2:39 PM
Russ says...

.The finders were and are part of old project ‘monarch’. We sought to confront them in cleveland Ohio ...they had kids and a few woman. They are ‘’x’’ military. They will using old painted black bus with the name ‘meanic’ on the front header. The plate that was run showed it came from a place in Youngstown Ohio.
A number of military sra/mpd know of this. We are going to Youngstown to track it.
They and the bus were here during St. James rituals. They are for real, they carry weapons and they steal chldren and transport them to others.
Russ
http://www.shatterthedarkness.net/


Feb 25, 2007 at 5:43 AM
Antoine says...

.I can’t believe they were here in Tallahassee and not far from where I live.
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Marion Pettie - Pipl

Marion Pettie - Pipl: "sciuscillonu.altervista.org




Marion Pettie may appear as: MarionPettie, MPettie, MarionP"

Sunday, October 4, 2009

Info.com - unconventional warfare - reference.Info.com

Info.com - unconventional warfare - reference.Info.com: "The general objective of unconventional warfare is to instill a belief that peace and security are not possible without compromise or concession. Specific objectives include inducement of war weariness, curtailment of civilian standards of living and civil liberties associated with greater security demands, economic hardship linked to the costs of war; hopelessness to defend against assaults, fear, depression, and disintegration of morale."

DEFINITIONS EXPLAINED BY ARMY

Encyclopedia of Public Health: Terrorism
Terrorism refers here to the public health consequences and the methods for prevention of the purposeful use of violence or threats of violence by groups or individuals in order to serve political or personal agendas. This article does not include what has been termed "state terrorism," the use of violence by a nation-state without clear necessity for self-defense and without the authorization of the United Nations.

Examples of Terrorism

Use or threat of use of violence has long caused concern among those responsible for public health. Examples include indiscriminate violence, such as the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York City and the 1995 bombing of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City, and targeted violence, such as attacks on facilities for the termination of pregnancy or on those who work in such facilities. The primary responsibility for response to the health consequences of such violence has resided largely in emergency medical services and the primary responsibility for prevention in agencies concerned with public order and safety, such as the police and the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Recent instances of use or threatened use of biological or chemical agents in terrorism have raised interest in the role of public health agencies and public health personnel in primary or secondary prevention. Documented episodes, although extremely rare, have been dramatic. In Japan, the chemical warfare agent Sarin was released by the Aum Shinrikyo cult in Matsumoto in 1994 and in the Tokyo subway in 1995. In 1984, an Oregon cult allegedly contaminated salad bars with a biological agent, salmonella. These episodes, and recent hoaxes concerning anthrax release, have led to well publicized, costly responses by public health and public safety officials. Chemical terrorism could include the purposeful contamination of water and food supplies or the aerosolization of toxicants within enclosed public spaces. Biological terrorist actions could include purposeful contamination with infectious materials, as well as the purposeful release of insects or other vectors infected with a transmissible disease.

Availability of Chemical and Biological Weapons

Underlying concern about bioterrorism is the long history of use of chemical and biological weapons (CBW) in war. Since World War II, worldwide military forces have built up major stockpiles of such weapons and tested them at a number of sites around the world. Although the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) outlawed the development, production, stockpiling, and transfer of these weapons, large stockpiles of chemical weapons still await destruction in several nations, and it is alleged that stockpiles of biological weapons are still maintained in a few nations. Although the technical knowledge and materials needed to produce CBW are relatively available, the ability to "weaponize" and target these materials remains extremely limited. The risk of their use appears to be small, but any use constitutes a threat to public health.

Types of Biological Agents

There are at least seventy types of bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae, and fungi that can be weaponized, including tularemia, anthrax, Q fever, epidemic typhus, smallpox, brucellosis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, botulinum toxin, dengue fever, Russian spring-summer encephalitis, Lassa fever, Marburg, Ebola, Bolivian hemorrhagic fever (Machupo), and Argentinean hemorrhagic fever (Junin). Antibiotic resistant strains of anthrax, plague, tularemia, and glanders have allegedly been developed. Viruses and toxins can be genetically altered to heighten their infectiousness, permitting the development of pathogens capable of overcoming existing vaccines. It is estimated that no more than 20 to 30 percent of the diseases the aforementioned agents cause can be effectively treated.

Recent History of Control

In 1994 U.S. president Bill Clinton issued an Executive Order asserting that the potential use of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons "by terrorist groups or rogue states" represents "an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security, foreign policy and economy of the United States." This Order, renewed annually, makes it illegal for anyone in the United States to help anyone to acquire, design, produce, or stockpile CBW. The Order was amended in 1998 to include penalties for trafficking in equipment that could indirectly contribute to a foreign biological warfare program.

In 1995 President Clinton announced a new policy against "superterrorism"—terrorism involving weapons of mass destruction. The Departments of Defense, Energy, and State, together with the FBI and the CIA, were to oversee a wide network of military and civilian agencies, including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, dedicated to identifying CBW attacks and to coping with their consequences. In 1997, a $52.6 million Domestic Preparedness Program was authorized for emergency response teams in 120 selected cities, whereby police, fire departments, and public health officials were to receive special training and equipment to help them combat biological and chemical terrorism.

In 1998 President Clinton announced new initiatives to address bioterrorism. Hearings before a committee of the U.S. Senate in 1998 included witnesses who stated that such proposals were misguided because so many resources were being assigned to military rather than to medical or public health authorities. Ethical questions raised include whether such funds could be better spent on providing adequate public health measures, preventive medicine, and treatment for endemic illness to the population.

Limitations of Counter-Terrorism Measures

Overall, there is little evidence that specific vaccine programs or other technical defensive programs are effective or ethical preventive measures against the use or threat of use of biologic weapons. Many public health experts argue that the best defenses against use of biological weapons lie in ethical proSCRIPTion of work on them by health professionals and scientists and protection of the global population against all serious infectious disease, not just diseases caused intentionally, by ameliorating poverty and inadequate nutrition, housing, and education.

As part of this effort, it is argued, industrialized countries should enable developing countries to build capacity for detection, diagnosis, and treatment of all disease by providing technical information and needed resources. Article X of the BWC, encouraging the exchange of information and materials for peaceful purposes, should be strengthened. Research organizations, professional societies, and individual scientists should pledge not to engage knowingly in research or teaching that furthers the development and use of biological weapons. Furthermore, all countries could prohibit the development of novel biological agents that do not have an unambiguously peaceful purpose, even if these activities are promoted for defensive purposes.

An important reason that a few nations, groups, or individuals may continue to develop or stockpile chemical or biological weapons, known as "the poor nation's nuclear weapons," lies in the massive stockpiles of nuclear weapons maintained by the United States and other nuclear powers. As long as these nations fail to recognize their obligations under the 1970 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty to move expeditiously toward nuclear weapons abolition, biological and chemical weapons will remain a threat.

PRIVACY

EPIC Online Guide
to Practical Privacy Tools
Snoop Proof Email | Anonymous Remailers | Surf Anonymously | HTML Filters | Cookie Busters | Voice Privacy | Email & File Privacy | Secure Instant Messaging | Web Encryption | Telnet Encryption | Disk Encryption | Disk/File Erasing Programs | Privacy Policy Generators | Password Security | Firewalls | Other


--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Disclaimer: EPIC does not lobby for, consult, or advise companies, nor do we endorse specific products or services. This list merely serves as a sampling of available privacy-enhancing tools. If you have a suggestion for a tool that you believe should be included, or if you have comments to share regarding one or more of the tools that are already listed, send e-mail to epic-info@epic.org. If you have questions about a tool on this page, visit the affiliated company or individual's Web site for more information.
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Snoop Proof Email
Aderes. Offers secure e-mail and Web browsing.

CenturionMail. A powerful, yet easy-to-use, security program for encrypting e-mails as well as files/folders.

CryptoAnywhere. Powerful encryption so small it fits on a floppy disk. Can be used virtually anywhere with no need for installation. Message recipient does not need CryptoAnywhere.

CryptoHeaven (see also under "secure instant messaging").

Cyber-Rights.Net. Secure Web-based email, offered by Cyber-Rights & Cyber-Liberties, a nonprofit civil liberties organization.

Ensuredmail. Easy-to-use encryption software that protects your email and attachments.

FastMail.

HushMail. Web-based secure email.

KeptPrivate. Web email client accessible over an SSL connection.

Mail2Web. Check your mail securely and privately on the road (or on your cellular phone).

MailVault. Provides free PGP-based Web e-mail.

Mute Mail. Anonymizing e-mail activites. Sending e-mails anonymously, securely and snoop-proff. All messages are encrypted. Sender's identity is confidential.

NeoCertified. Secure e-mail and messaging.

Neomailbox. Online privacy service provides private, anonymous, SSL encrypted IMAP, POP3, SMTP and Webmail access, secure anonymous Web browsing, choice of US or Netherlands hosted plans, spam and virus defenses, unlimited disposable e-mail addresses, and two-factor authentication for e-mail access with an optional hardware token.

S-Mail - Secure mail.

SafeMessage. Encrypted messages, delivery status, and automatic shredding.

Sec-Ex Mail. Strong encryption that works with any e-mail client, no plugins needed. Supports automatic key exchange.

SecureMail. For Bell South small business DSL customers.

Securenym. Provides outsourced secure e-mail to businesses as well as individual mail accounts, supports PGP & s/mime.

Sneakemail.com.

SoftClan E-Cryptor.

Stealth Message. Web-based e-mail privacy with option to self-destruct.

Z1 SecureMail Gateway. Acts as an SMTP proxy server which automatically encrypts, decrypts and signs e-mails as well as verifies e-mail signatures.

Zendit. Plug-in that makes it easy to use PGP with e-mail programs like Outlook, or with Web-based e-mail.

Anonymous Remailers
Anonymize.net.

AnonymSurfen. (In German) List of free online web-based proxies that can be used directly from the site.

@nonymouse.com. Also offers anonymous Web surfing and newsgroup posting. Available in both German and English.

André Bacard's Anonymous Remailer FAQ.

Mixminion: A Type III Anonymous Remailer. Also see Mixminion Message Sender, a Windows GUI Frontend for Mixminion.

QuickSilver: A Win32 Mixmaster Anonymous Remailer Client.

Public WiKi and Remailer FAQ.

Surf Anonymously
All Confidential.

AnonymSurfen. (In German) List of free online web-based proxies that can be used directly from the site.

The Anonymizer.

beHidden.com. Provides users with a secure way to surf and browse the Internet, without others monitoring and recording the sites visited.

BrowserSpy. Provides detailed information about what your browser supports and reveals.

BrowsInfo. See what can be discovered about your browser.

The Cloak. Free anonymous web-surfing.

Cloudish.

Cotse.net. Also offers e-mail and Web hosting services, as well as links to other privacy tools.

CryptoTunnel VPN2GO. Also offers secure online communication.

Fogbank-now. Firewall-protected remote Internet browser. Also offers encrypted e-mail and other services.

Freedom WebSecure.

Guardster.

I Can See You. Program from anonymizer.com shows you the information your browser reveals. (NOTE: this program runs a Javascript file that may bring up a virus alert. The file is safe; however, if you experience any further problems, please contact the web administrators at anonymizer.com.)

IDzap. Anonymous surfing and web hosting.

JAP.

MERLETN.ORG. Also available in French.

MisterPrivacy.

Neomailbox.

Ponoi. Anonymous web-browsing, encrypted file storage, password storage, and cookie management.

Primedius. Anonymous surfing, secure email and secure online storage.

Privacy Analysis of your Internet Connection. Analyzes information that is collected about you when you visit a Web site, such as whether cookies are accepted, what site you linked to the page from, and the date and time as set on your computer.

ProxyPortal. Anonymous web surfing proxy that hides the user's IP and other personal information from the Web stie they're viewing.

Public Proxy Servers. A list of thousands of public proxy servers with online check capability.

Rewebber.

SpyNOT. Secures Javascript by re-writing it on-the-fly into a secure pseudo-script, retaining as much functionality in the Web page as possible.

Steganos Internet Anonym. Hides your IP address from Web operators. Also includes InternetTrace Destructor to delete all traces left on your hard disk after an Internet session.

Surfprivately.

SurfSecret Privacy Protector. Cache and cookie controls plus more; support for most browsers.

Tor. Anonymous web browsing, instant messaging, etc. Also allows users to offer "hidden" web servers and other services, even from behind firewalls.

W3Privacy. Also includes many other privacy resources.
HTML Filters
AOTop. Stops unwanted ad banners and pop-ups with a configurable ad-obfuscating tool for visual privacy protection.

Camera/Shy. Stand-alone browser that offers encryption and decryption of steganography, automatic cache and history clearing, and protection against malicious HTML.

InfoWorks Technology Company offers products to get rid of pop-ups, erase history, and others.

Internet Eraser.

Junkbuster (Windows/UNIX). The Internet Junkbuster Proxy blocks unwanted banner ads and protects your privacy from cookies and other threats.

Orangatango's VirtualBrowser. Surf privately, kill pop-up ads, prevent spam, encrypt surfing, filter content, and avoid online fraud.

PC Privacy Protection Program.

Peekabooty. A peer-to-peer application which can route web page requests around firewalls.

Personal Sentinel. Block third party cookies, remove privacy threats, filter unwanted content, and block unwanted ads.

Privoxy. A Web proxy with advanced filtering capabilities for protecting privacy, modifying web page content, managing cookies, controlling access, and removing ads, banners, pop-ups, etc.

Proxomitron (Windows). Get the web-surfing experience that you want.

Smasher (Windows). Block cookies and pop-up windows, squash web bugs, and more.

Surfer Protection Program.

SurfSecret Pop-Up Eliminator.

Wincognito Pop-Up Blocker.

Cookie Busters
Burnt Cookies (for Internet Explorer on Windows platform).

Cookie Cruncher (Windows).

Cookie Crusher (Windows).

Cookie Cutter 1.0 (for Netscape on Macintosh platform). Direct download.

Cookie Jar (UNIX).

MagicCookie Monster (for Netscape on Macintosh platform).

Spy Blocker.

Voice Privacy
GSMK CryptoPhone.

PGP Phone (Mac and Windows 95). Turn a PC into a secure telephone.
Mac international distribution (direct download from Norway).
web.mit.edu/network/pgpfone
Skype.

Speak Freely.

ZFone Public Beta Now available for Windows and Mac, secure
Voice over IP.
Email and File Privacy
Anonymous Surfing, inc.

Crypto Kong. Digital signatures and encryption so simple that even the chairman of the board can use it.

CryptonWare. Encrypts TCP/IP communication such as e-mail, instant messaging, HTTP, FTP, e-commerce, IRC, telephony, and streaming audio/video.

Direct from Phil. Get the latest version of PGP from the original source.
Encryptionizer. File encryption (Windows).

GFI Mail Essentials for Exchange/ SMTP. Server based anti spam & email management solution for Microsoft Exchange Server, Lotus Notes, and SMTP/POP3 mail servers.

GnuPG – the GNU Privacy Guard.

Hacktivismo & Cult of the Dead Cow's "6/4". Primarily designed to bypass large scale firewalls and allow for the anonymous uploading and downloading of various protocols.

Icon Lock-iT. Encrypts, locks and password-protects files and folders.

Index Dat Spy. This free utility is a viewer that shows you what information Windows and Internet Explorer stores in its index.dat files. This information remains even after you have emptied your cache and deleted your history.

Keygloo. Webmail encryption tools, available for Gmail, Yahoo!, Hotmail, Lycos, Yahoo Briefcase, and Outlook Express.

Message Sentinel. Analyzes incoming e-mail and blocks privacy threats.

PC-encrypt. E-mail and File security for PC's operating Microsoft Windows software.

PeepLock offers products for file encryption, message encryption, and e-mail security.

Pretty Good Privacy (PGP). Protect privacy of electronic mail and files. Available for most machines.
Distribution from MIT.
International PGP Home Page.
International distribution from Finland.
Private Idaho.
"Where to Get PGP FAQ" via email. Mail ftp-request@netcom.com with the line SEND mpj/getpgp.asc .
PGP Users List and Reference.
André Bacard's PGP FAQ.
Veridis. Open PGP library and software.
Privacy Master. Keeps online and offline data safe from theives, hackers and prying eyes.

Private Eye. This free utility allows you to view all information stored in the area on your Windows machine known as Protected Storage. This includes all the information saved by IE if you enable the Auto Complete feature, as well as user names and passwords in plain text—even for secure sites. The registered/paid version also allows you to remove individual entries from the protected storage.

Steganos Security Suite. Encrypts and hides your data. Creates self-decrypting e-mails. Also includes Portable Safe and Internet Trace Destructor featuring XP Privacy, Password Manager and Data Shredder.

VaultletSuite. Secure, spam-free email, password storage and file encryption from just about anywhere. (Windows, Linux, OS X and Solaris)

Secure Instant Messaging
BitWise Chat. Encrypts not just messages, but also chat rooms and file transfers.

CryptoHeaven. Secure instant messaging, as well as secure e-mail, file sharing, and online storage.

Fire. A multi-protocol IM client for Mac OS X. Uses your existing PGP/GPG keys to encrypt all communication between you and the recipient.

Gale. Public-private key encrypted instant messaging software distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License.

Hush Messenger. Secure instant messaging for Hushmail users.

iGo Incognito. Instant Messaging system that ensures your privacy and security.

Project SCIM: Secure Cryptographic Instant Messaging. Runs on many different platforms.

PSST. Encrypted instant message software for Windows and Linux.

Secure Shuttle Transport. Encrypted instant messaging, FTP, text chat, voice chat, and more.

SecuriChat. Triple-layered preshared key encrypted chat program.

Skype.

Sonork. Set up and control your own Instant Messaging system.

Web Encryption
Check the strength of the crypto in your browser.

Fortify (Windows 95/NT/UNIX). Upgrades weak international version of Netscape into strong 128-bit version. Available worldwide.

Telnet Encryption
F-Secure SSH. Secure Telnet for Mac/Windows/UNIX (Finland).

MacSSH (Macintosh PowerPC).

OpenSSH.

Putty Downloads.

TTSSH (Windows).

Disk Encryption
Encrypt your entire hard drive.
PGPdisk (was CryptDisk). Now included with PGP.

SafeBoot (Windows).

Scramdisk.

TrueCrypt. Free open-source disk encryption software for Windows XP/2000/2003 and Linux.
Disk/File Erasing Programs
Completely erase files so that they cannot be recovered or undeleted.
AbsoluteShield File Shredder. Freeware to completely remove files/folders from the disk.

Burn 2.5 (Macintosh).

CyberScrub. Erases recycle bin data, cookies, history, browser tracers etc.

DiskVac (Windows).

E3 Security Kit.

Eraser 3.5.

Evidence Eliminator (Windows).

Evidence Neutralizer.

Internet Privacy Protection Tool.

Mac Washer. Washes away all traces of Internet and Mac activity.

Privacy History Eraser. Eliminates visited Web site history, temporary files, most recently used file lists, index.dat files and more from products including Internet Explorer, Media Player, and Windows.

Total Shield Tracks Cleaner. Erases online and offline traces of your actions kept by Windows, browsers and more than 200 third-party programs.

Window Washer. Washes away all traces of Internet and PC activity.

Windows CleanUp! This free utility deletes traces of much of your activity not just online, but offline (and on the computer). Runs on all versions of Windows OS from 95 to XP and includes support for IE, Netscape, Mozilla, Opera and Firefox.

Windows & Internet Washer. Shareware to protect your privacy be cleaning up all tracks of your computer and Internet activities.

Wintracks (Windows). Available in English and French.

Privacy Policy Generators
OECD Privacy Policy Generator.

P3Pwriter Privacy Policy Editor. Online Privacy Editor to allow sites to meet the current P3P specifications

Policy Editor. Web-based P3P Policy generator that creates valid W3C specfied P3P policies.

Password Security
Access Armor. (Demo)

PW-Gen.

VaultletSuite. Secure, spam-free email, password storage and file encryption from just about anywhere. (Windows, Linux, OS X and Solaris)

WebCogs.com.

Firewalls
BlackICE Defender.

BrickHouse. For Mac OS X.

Personal Firewall.

SurfSecret Personal Firewall.

Sygate Personal Firewall.

Tiny Personal Firewall.

ZoneAlarm. Freeware alternative.

Other Resources
AllTextEncryption.com. Data protection, spam prevention, personal and e-business encryption software.

Anonymous Hosting. Provided by Katz Global Media solutions for clients who would prefer to keep their personal and business information to themselves.

Anti-Keylog. A solution that can protect important personal information such as ID, password, credit card number, bank account number etc. even if known and unknown hacking programs exist in users pc.

Chaos Mash. Free encryption utility for Windows. Can be run from a USB device.

Covelight Percept. Full-time audit of application usage to protect the privacy of entrusted personal information from theft, fraud and abuse.

"Cryptographic software solutions and how to use them."

Crypt0graphy Research Labs . Links to cryptographic and other resources.

CryptoPad. Wordpad-like cryptography program, cryptography uses a single string of unlimited length as the key for documents.

Datacorner pwProtect. Provides browser-based online AES encryption of text
and messages.

DeleteNow. Fee service. Will contact many databases to remove your personal information from their listings.

FreeSecurity. Freeware, graphical, easy to use application that allows you to compress and use 128-bit AES (Rijndael) to encrypt your files. Works on all major operating systems (Linux, Windows, MacOS, Solaris, etc...) as long as Java is installed.

How To GPG. User friendly and informative step by step instructions to help people set up GnuPG on Windows.

Ingrian DataSecure. Data at rest encryption solution that features field, file, and column level encryption for compliance of Visa PCI, SB 1386, HIPAA and other encryption privacy laws.

InvisibleNet. Anonymous networking for communications.

Just1Key. Secure password manager, compatible with Windows, Mac, or Unix; handheld PDAs or mobile phones with SSL Web browsers.

My Personal Favorites. Secures lists of favorite sites and protects browsing privacy.

MyPrivateLine. A prepaid telephone service that uses toll-free numbers to route all incoming calls anonymously and safely to another, hidden phone number of each user’s choice.

OkayCash. Shop online without a credit card.

PCWorld: 34 steps you can take to reclaim your online privacy. (June 2002)

Privacy Communications, Inc. (PrivCom). Encrypted faxes and voicemail.

Shields UP! Internet Connection Security Analysis.

SingleFin. Protect your company from junk e-mail and viruses.

SnoopFree Privacy Shield. Protects against spyware.

SpamEx. Disposable E-mail Address Service.

SpamFreeze. Free service from SpamButcher for publicizing e-mail addresses on the Web without getting spammed.

SpyCop. Detects an ever-growing number of "spy programs" which monitor computer usage.

SurfSecret PestPatrol. Detects and eliminates trojans, spyware, adware, etc.

Utilities. Free with source code, deals with several browsers' cookies, history and cache files.

Who's Watching Me? Snooper Detector. Checks your system for "snoopers," or software that is installed on a computer to record actions and events.

WinSCP. A freeware SCP Secure CoPy client for Windows using SSH (Secure Shell.)

http://web.archive.org/web/20071224183622/http://www.exits.ro/ – Free tools and tutorials about online privacy and security.



Page URL: http://www.epic.org/privacy/tools.html

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research.info.com searched through all the major online encyclopedias, thesauruses, dictionary definitions... – Learn More
Results for terrorists
Dictionary: ter·ror·ism (tĕr'ə-rĭz'əm)
n.
The unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence by a person or an organized group against people or property with the intention of intimidating or coercing societies or governments, often for ideological or political reasons.



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The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2007, 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

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Encyclopedia of Public Health: Terrorism
Terrorism refers here to the public health consequences and the methods for prevention of the purposeful use of violence or threats of violence by groups or individuals in order to serve political or personal agendas. This article does not include what has been termed "state terrorism," the use of violence by a nation-state without clear necessity for self-defense and without the authorization of the United Nations.

Examples of Terrorism

Use or threat of use of violence has long caused concern among those responsible for public health. Examples include indiscriminate violence, such as the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York City and the 1995 bombing of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City, and targeted violence, such as attacks on facilities for the termination of pregnancy or on those who work in such facilities. The primary responsibility for response to the health consequences of such violence has resided largely in emergency medical services and the primary responsibility for prevention in agencies concerned with public order and safety, such as the police and the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Recent instances of use or threatened use of biological or chemical agents in terrorism have raised interest in the role of public health agencies and public health personnel in primary or secondary prevention. Documented episodes, although extremely rare, have been dramatic. In Japan, the chemical warfare agent Sarin was released by the Aum Shinrikyo cult in Matsumoto in 1994 and in the Tokyo subway in 1995. In 1984, an Oregon cult allegedly contaminated salad bars with a biological agent, salmonella. These episodes, and recent hoaxes concerning anthrax release, have led to well publicized, costly responses by public health and public safety officials. Chemical terrorism could include the purposeful contamination of water and food supplies or the aerosolization of toxicants within enclosed public spaces. Biological terrorist actions could include purposeful contamination with infectious materials, as well as the purposeful release of insects or other vectors infected with a transmissible disease.

Availability of Chemical and Biological Weapons

Underlying concern about bioterrorism is the long history of use of chemical and biological weapons (CBW) in war. Since World War II, worldwide military forces have built up major stockpiles of such weapons and tested them at a number of sites around the world. Although the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) outlawed the development, production, stockpiling, and transfer of these weapons, large stockpiles of chemical weapons still await destruction in several nations, and it is alleged that stockpiles of biological weapons are still maintained in a few nations. Although the technical knowledge and materials needed to produce CBW are relatively available, the ability to "weaponize" and target these materials remains extremely limited. The risk of their use appears to be small, but any use constitutes a threat to public health.

Types of Biological Agents

There are at least seventy types of bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae, and fungi that can be weaponized, including tularemia, anthrax, Q fever, epidemic typhus, smallpox, brucellosis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, botulinum toxin, dengue fever, Russian spring-summer encephalitis, Lassa fever, Marburg, Ebola, Bolivian hemorrhagic fever (Machupo), and Argentinean hemorrhagic fever (Junin). Antibiotic resistant strains of anthrax, plague, tularemia, and glanders have allegedly been developed. Viruses and toxins can be genetically altered to heighten their infectiousness, permitting the development of pathogens capable of overcoming existing vaccines. It is estimated that no more than 20 to 30 percent of the diseases the aforementioned agents cause can be effectively treated.

Recent History of Control

In 1994 U.S. president Bill Clinton issued an Executive Order asserting that the potential use of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons "by terrorist groups or rogue states" represents "an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security, foreign policy and economy of the United States." This Order, renewed annually, makes it illegal for anyone in the United States to help anyone to acquire, design, produce, or stockpile CBW. The Order was amended in 1998 to include penalties for trafficking in equipment that could indirectly contribute to a foreign biological warfare program.

In 1995 President Clinton announced a new policy against "superterrorism"—terrorism involving weapons of mass destruction. The Departments of Defense, Energy, and State, together with the FBI and the CIA, were to oversee a wide network of military and civilian agencies, including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, dedicated to identifying CBW attacks and to coping with their consequences. In 1997, a $52.6 million Domestic Preparedness Program was authorized for emergency response teams in 120 selected cities, whereby police, fire departments, and public health officials were to receive special training and equipment to help them combat biological and chemical terrorism.

In 1998 President Clinton announced new initiatives to address bioterrorism. Hearings before a committee of the U.S. Senate in 1998 included witnesses who stated that such proposals were misguided because so many resources were being assigned to military rather than to medical or public health authorities. Ethical questions raised include whether such funds could be better spent on providing adequate public health measures, preventive medicine, and treatment for endemic illness to the population.

Limitations of Counter-Terrorism Measures

Overall, there is little evidence that specific vaccine programs or other technical defensive programs are effective or ethical preventive measures against the use or threat of use of biologic weapons. Many public health experts argue that the best defenses against use of biological weapons lie in ethical proSCRIPTion of work on them by health professionals and scientists and protection of the global population against all serious infectious disease, not just diseases caused intentionally, by ameliorating poverty and inadequate nutrition, housing, and education.

As part of this effort, it is argued, industrialized countries should enable developing countries to build capacity for detection, diagnosis, and treatment of all disease by providing technical information and needed resources. Article X of the BWC, encouraging the exchange of information and materials for peaceful purposes, should be strengthened. Research organizations, professional societies, and individual scientists should pledge not to engage knowingly in research or teaching that furthers the development and use of biological weapons. Furthermore, all countries could prohibit the development of novel biological agents that do not have an unambiguously peaceful purpose, even if these activities are promoted for defensive purposes.

An important reason that a few nations, groups, or individuals may continue to develop or stockpile chemical or biological weapons, known as "the poor nation's nuclear weapons," lies in the massive stockpiles of nuclear weapons maintained by the United States and other nuclear powers. As long as these nations fail to recognize their obligations under the 1970 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty to move expeditiously toward nuclear weapons abolition, biological and chemical weapons will remain a threat.

(SEE ALSO: Arms Control; Genocide; Violence)

Bibliography

Alibek, K. (1999). Biohazard. New York: Random House.

Carter, A.; Deutch, J.; and Zelikow, P. (1998). "Combating Catastrophic Terrorism." Foreign Affairs (Nov/Dec):80–94.

Cohen, H. W.; Gould, R. M.; and Sidel, V. W. "Bioterrorism Initiatives: Public Health in Reverse?" American Journal of Public Health 89:1629–1631.

Gould, R., and Connell, N. D. (1997). "The Public Health Effects of Biological Weapons." In War and Public Health, eds. B. S. Levy and V. W. Sidel. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

Lifton, R. J. (1999). Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism. New York: Henry Holt.

Lockwood, A. H. (1997). "The Public Health Effects of the Use of Chemical Weapons." In War and Public Health, eds. B. S. Levy and V. W. Sidel. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

Piller, C., and Yamamoto, K. R. (1990). "The U.S. Biological Defense Research Program in the 1980s: A Critique." In Preventing a Biological Arms Race, ed. Susan Wright. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Sidel, V. W; Nass, M.; and Ensign, T. (1998). "The Anthrax Dilemma." Medicine and Global Survival 5:97–104.

Tucker, J. B. (1997). "National Health and Medical Services Response to Incidents of Chemical and Biological Terrorism." Journal of the American Medical Association 278:389–395.

— VICTOR W. SIDEL; ROBERT GOULD



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Encyclopedia of Public Health. Copyright © 2002 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Military History Companion: terrorism
Terrorism is the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or its threat. Although ancient, it has become a common feature of the late 20th century, when it has raised a host of complex moral and practical issues. Terror, inflicted by the wholesale slaughter of populations who resisted, was used by Assyrians and Mongols alike to achieve the rapid collapse of enemy resolve, and was embodied in the practice (defended by Wellington even after the Napoleonic wars) of butchering the garrisons of fortresses which held out to the last extremity. Although terrorism is generally seen in the context of being employed against a government or its agencies, its use is not necessarily anti-governmental. The French Revolutionary ‘Reign of Terror’ was exactly that, and many subsequent regimes—like those of Stalin in Russia, Hitler in Germany, and Pol Pot's Cambodia—have used terror against their own citizens. The use of coercive power by governments—‘state terrorism’—has itself been used by terrorists to justify their own activities, even when the level of repression used by the government in question might appear to fall well short of terrorism. Albert Camus's 1949 play Les Justes, set in late 19th-century Russia—whose regime was indeed repressive—turns on the relationship between the damage terrorists necessarily inflict on the innocent and the greater political goal that they pursue. It underlines the point that the whole issue is extraordinarily subjective: one man's bomber-pilot is another's terror-flier, one man's freedom fighter another's terrorist.

One of the first recorded doctrinaire terrorists was Carlo Pisacane, Duke of San Giovanni, who renounced his aristocratic birthright to further the cause of Italian nationalism. Employing the revolutionary language of a century later, he argued that ‘ideas result from deeds, not the latter from the former and the people will not be free when they are educated but educated when they are free’. Pisacane was killed in 1857, but his ideas were taken up in Russia twenty years later by the revolutionary organization Narodnaya Volya (The People's Will), a group dedicated to achieving political change by the assassination of high-profile individuals associated with the state. Their adherence to the principle of committing acts of violence only against specific individuals contrasts with the relatively random acts of violence perpetrated by many modern terrorist groups, for whom society itself has become the target.

That terrorist groups began to emerge in late 19th-century Europe was no accident. The era was characterized by the growing pains of a new and often disadvantaged urban class, and by new weaponry such as breech-loading pistols and rifles, and the invention of dynamite by Nobel in 1862. This malleable form of high explosive was relatively safe to carry and plant, while the contemporary invention of mercury detonators enabled a charge to be set off at will. Similar social change, in this case the shift of populations from the countryside to the towns, and the ready availability of plastic explosive, had similar effects in South America a century later.

The relationship between the terrorist and the guerrilla is complex. Not all guerrillas are terrorists: many have striven to represent themselves as irregular forces fighting a regular war, while their opponents have consistently sought to portray them as terrorists in order to deprive them of legitimacy. Yet the guerrilla's military weakness and his dependence on popular support both tend to drive him towards terrorism. The former encourages him to get the maximum publicity—especially in and beyond the media-rich 1960s—from the meagre means at his disposal, and the latter drives him to use both stick and carrot in his dealings with the population. The communists in China and the Vietcong in Vietnam both dealt harshly with civilian supporters of the hostile regime. Vietcong attacks on the civil service and local administration during the Tet offensive, often exemplified by the brutal murder of whole family groups, did much to destabilize South Vietnam. Independence campaigns against colonial rulers, like those in Cyprus and Algeria, usually embodied elements of terrorism. It is profoundly ironic, in view of Israel's subsequent experience of terrorism, that some of the groups who pursued Israeli independence used some of the very methods their successors now condemn.

Urban guerrillas, like the Brazilian Carlos Marighela, argued that gangster actions like bank raids and kidnappings would provoke the government into action which would turn the population against the government, rather than against the perpetrators of the original violence, but the process rarely worked that way. In Uruguay the Tupamaros—as judicious and responsible in their actions as any urban guerrillas can hope to be—simply polarized opinion against them and were duly crushed.

Although there had been connections between national anarchist groups in the 19th century, the internationalization of terrorism really occurred after 1945, as the Soviet bloc and its clients actively supported terrorist groups with training, equipment, and safe havens; the role of Libya has been particularly suspect. International terrorism took a new turn in 1968. The PLO had been founded in 1964 from Palestinian pressure groups who wished to recover their homeland. Israeli victory in the Six Day War of June 1967 resulted in the Jordanians losing Jerusalem and the West Bank of the Jordan, swelling the number of Arab refugees. The more radical elements of the PLO reacted violently, beginning in July 1968 with the hijacking of an El Al airliner. The Israelis released sixteen Arab prisoners, but this only encouraged more hijacks, and the PLO (and its splinter groups) mounted ever more daring and bloody attacks. These culminated with the kidnapping of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Munich Olympics, where all eleven hostages and five terrorists were killed. It is arguable whether the latter act caused an invitation to be issued to Yasser Arafat to address the UN General Assembly, but within eighteen months Arafat had spoken to the UN, and his PLO had been awarded ‘Special Observer Status’. Despite the success of the Israeli commando raid at Entebbe in 1976, which released over 100 hostages held by German and Palestinian hijackers, it is hard to resist the conclusion that it was the use of terrorism that brought the PLO to its prominent position on the world's stage.

The spread and sophistication of modern communications has ensured that modern terrorists have an effect out of all proportion to their numbers, a factor which has been crucial to late 20th-century terrorists for whom publicity is indeed oxygen. In Europe, the IRA in the UK and the Basque separatists ETA in Spain both generated publicity out of all proportion to the number of activists engaged. The nationalist splinter group that detonated the bomb at Omagh in Northern Ireland in 1998 probably killed more people than it had activists. Similarly, although the terrorist groups of the 1970s, like the Baader-Meinhof gang in West Germany, the Italian Red Brigades, and the Japanese Red Army Faction, consisted of very few individuals with little popular support, their activities were nothing if not headline-grabbing. They saw themselves as ‘class warriors’, directing their venom at international businessmen, national government, or representatives of the US military. In a similar nihilistic vein are the Japanese religious cult behind the Sarin gas attack in Tokyo (March 1995) and the perpetrators of the Oklahoma City federal office block attack of just one month later, which resulted in 168 deaths.

Other extremist groups, such as animal rights campaigners, anti-abortionists, and some extreme ecologists, have also used terrorism, justifying it with the familiar ‘state terrorism’ arguments already described. Though there is little evidence that 1990s terrorist groups are as interlinked as those of the 1970s and 1980s, their rise may be due in part to widely published studies of the techniques of terrorism and its effectiveness. Modern crime gangs and drug barons—‘non-state actors’—have also acquired the resources to wage terrorist-type campaigns. Though the methods may be identical, the motivation is financial, not political—in this sense they are merely imitators, ‘quasi-terrorists’. The fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 and the resultant numbers of automatic weapons and explosives in circulation are partly responsible for this development. The portrayal of destruction and terror by the media underlines the core function of terrorism, which continues to be achieved by a tiny minority of zealots. Some commentators have now identified ‘cyber terrorism’, where no physical violence is threatened (or implied) to humans, but rather information systems themselves are the target. A computer virus circulated via the Internet is, in its way, as newsworthy as a traditional terrorist bomb.

Terrorism has caused many nations to develop specialist anti-terrorist units in the military or police, though the distinctions between the traditional functions of each sometimes became blurred in the process. In the British model, troops were used in support of the civil power, well demonstrated in 1980 with the storming by the SAS of the terrorist-held Iranian Embassy in London. The internationalization of terrorism generated an international response, particularly in terms of the pooling of police intelligence, although the old question of value judgements continues to enable one state's terrorists to emerge as another's political refugees. Most visibly, terrorism has resulted in the tightening-up of security at ports, airports, and public buildings, with concomitant delays and frustrations. In this respect its consequences may prove more enduring than those of many aspects of conventional warfare, for they will remain with us.

— Peter Caddick-Adams/Richard Holmes


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US Military Dictionary: terrorism
The calculated use of violence or threat of violence to inculcate fear. Terrorism is intended to coerce or intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological.

See the Introduction, Abbreviations and Pronunciation for further details.


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Political Dictionary: terrorism

Term with no agreed definition among governments or academic analysts, but almost invariably used in a pejorative sense, most frequently to describe life-threatening actions perpetrated by politically motivated self-appointed sub-state groups. But if such actions are carried out on behalf of a widely approved cause, say the Maquis seeking to destabilize the Government of Vichy France, then the term ‘terrorism’ is usually avoided and something more friendly is substituted. In short, one person's terrorist is another person's freedom fighter.

Terrorism as a pejorative term is sometimes applied, however, to the deeds of governments rather than to those of sub-state actors. The term ‘state terror’ is, for example, frequently applied to the actions of officially appointed groups such as the Gestapo, the KGB, the Stasi of East Germany, and the like, against dissidents or ethnic minorities among their own fellow citizens. And the term ‘state-sponsored terrorism’ is often used to describe the conduct of various governments in directly organizing or indirectly assisting perpetrators of violent acts in other states. But in practice this might be said to be simply a form of low-intensity undeclared warfare among sovereign states. In recent times many countries of divergent ideological persuasion have engaged in this kind of activity while in some cases strictly condemning others for the same practices. For example, the United States during the Presidency of Ronald Reagan denounced many regimes, most notably that of Libya, in this connection while simultaneously openly sponsoring sub-state violence against Nicaragua with whose government it had full diplomatic relations. Such apparent inconsistency should not perhaps surprise us when we recall that many US dollar bills carry the portrait of a well-known perpetrator of politically motivated sub-state violence, or ‘terrorist’, or ‘freedom fighter’, namely, George Washington.

Public interest in these matters grew massively as a result of the assault by hijacked airliners on the World Trade Center in New York City and on the Pentagon in Washington DC on 11 September 2001. For it was now widely acknowledged that the world was a facing a so-called ‘new terrorism’ whose first clear manifestations lay only in the early 1990s. By contrast, ‘old terrorism’ had had its heyday during the 1960s and 1970s. Then the emphasis had frequently been on territorial grievances involving demands for independence from imperialists or for revision of allegedly unjust frontiers. Sometimes such terrorism was successful—for example when the French were driven from Algeria and the British from Cyprus. On other occasions terrorists obtained compromise concessions that usually failed to resolve the dispute but nevertheless kept the level of violence contained. The Provisional Irish Republican Army and the Basque terrorists Euzkadi ta Askatasuma (ETA) come into this category. But some terrorist groups, like Baader-Meinhof in West Germany and the Red Brigades in Italy, simply failed unambiguously and so faded away: typically these were motivated by ideology rather than by ethnic or cultural identity and had a tendency to misread the amount of popular support they commanded. What all these various ‘old terrorists’ had in common, however, was that their operations tended to focus on limited geographical areas and their methods, though certainly ruthless, were not intended to maximize bloodshed without any regard to the impression given to the constituencies they claimed to represent. In short, they wanted many people watching rather then many people dead; they usually had aims that were rationally defensible; and they pursued such aims with some sense of proportionality. So-called ‘new terrorists’, on the other hand, are nihilistic, are inspired by fanatical religious beliefs, and are willing to seek martyrdom through suicide. They rarely set out aims that appear remotely attainable; they give no warnings; they do not engage in bargaining; they find compromise solutions to problems unappealing; they are willing and even eager to carry out the mass slaughter of non-combatants; and they frequently do not even claim responsibility for their deeds—presumably because they feel ultimately accountable only to a deity.

The ‘new terrorism’ was maybe first seen 1993 when an attempt was made to bring about the collapse of the World Trade Center in New York. The desire to kill thousands was clear even though in the event relatively few casualties resulted as the basement-based bombs proved insufficiently powerful to topple a tower. The US authorities blamed Islamic extremism and eventually a number of Muslims were brought to trial for the outrage. In the next major US manifestation of the ‘new terrorism’ it was Christian fundamentalism's turn to be involved: 1995 168 people were killed when a US Government building in Oklahoma City was blown up—with an American White Supremacist, Timothy McVeigh, being found guilty of the attack. Even more alarming was the use of weapons of mass destruction, both biological and chemical, in Tokyo during the early and mid-1990s. Actual deaths amounted only to twelve as several attempts were made to spread botulism and anthrax in the streets and sarin in the subway. The desire to kill many thousands was undoubted but technological incompetence prevented a catastrophe. Those responsible were again motivated by religion—in this case that of the obscure Aum Shinriko sect.

The unambiguous emergence of a ‘new terrorism’ was finally put beyond question as a result of the attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001. Al-Qaida, an Islamic fundamentalist network, was immediately blamed by the US Government. And, after much imprecise rhetoric about the intention to create a global coalition to wage ‘War against Terrorism’, US-led military action was taken against Afghanistan, whose Taliban-controlled regime was held to have harboured at least parts of the al-Qaida network and, in particular, Osama Bin Laden.

— David Carlton


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The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Copyright © 1996, 2003 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

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British History: terrorism
In the early 21st cent. there were indications that terrorism, which had previously taken the form of isolated assassinations or bombings, was becoming endemic and had acquired a formidable international dimension. On 11 September 2001 two hi-jacked aircraft destroyed the World Trade Centre in New York, with the loss of nearly 3000 lives. The immediate result was an economic crisis, particularly in air travel, heightened security precautions, a search for Osama bin Laden who had encouraged the strike, and an American-led attack upon the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, to root out members of al-Qa'eda. This was followed in 2003 by a three-week campaign in Iraq which overthrew Saddam Hussain. Disagreements on policy produced severe strains within the United Nations and NATO. In July 2005, a coordinated terrorist attack upon London killed more than fifty people.


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Philosophy Dictionary: terrorism
The intentional use of violence, particularly in order to sow widespread fear, for political ends. See Sorel.


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The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Copyright © 1994, 1996, 2005 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

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US History Encyclopedia: Terrorism
Terrorism is a political tactic that uses threat or violence, usually against civilians, to frighten a target group into conceding to certain political demands.

The term "terrorism" was first used to describe the state terrorism practiced by the French revolutionaries of 1789–1795. Through kangaroo courts, executions by guillotine, and violent repression of political opponents, the revolutionaries tried to frighten the population into submission. Two great terrorist states of the twentieth century, Nazi Germany and Stalinist Russia, also practiced the threat and use of violence to keep their own citizens in line.

In the nineteenth century, terrorist tactics were adopted by individuals and groups that used assassinations, bombings, and kidnappings to undermine popular support for what the terrorists saw as unjust policies or tyrannical governments. Terrorist acts were first committed on a wide scale in the United States during the latter part of the nineteenth century. On 4 May 1886, an anarchist bomb killed eight policemen during a demonstration in Chicago's Haymarket Square, and on 16 September 1920, an anarchist bomb hidden in a wagon on Wall Street killed thirty people and seriously injured more than two hundred.

Although anarchist violence received the most newspaper coverage during this period, the white supremacist Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was the most important terrorist group in the United States from 1850 to the 1960s. The KKK used marches, beatings, and lynchings to intimidate

African Americans who wished to vote or otherwise participate in the political process.

Beginning in the late 1960s, extreme-left groups like the Weathermen engaged in kidnapping and bombings to protest the Vietnam War, while groups like the Symbionese Liberation Army engaged in armed actions against civilians or the police, hoping thereby to provoke a "people's revolution." These groups disappeared in the 1970s and 1980s only to be replaced by extreme-right terrorist organizations.

On 19 April 1995 a truck bomb exploded outside the Alfred P. Murrah federal building in Oklahoma City, destroying the building and killing 168 people. An act of domestic terrorism, the Oklahoma City Bombing was the worst terrorist attack in U.S. history at the time. Testifying before the U.S. Senate in 1998, FBI Director Louis J. Freeh stated that, "The current domestic terrorist threat primarily comes from right-wing extremist groups, including radical paramilitary [militia] groups, Puerto Rican terrorist groups, and special interest groups."

The period after 1960 saw the rise of international terrorist attacks on Americans in the Middle East and in Latin America. The most dramatic instance of terrorism during this period was the 4 November 1979 attack by

Iranian students on the United States Embassy in Teheran, when sixty-six diplomats were held hostage until their release on 20 January 1981. According to the U.S. State Department, seventy-seven U.S. citizens were killed and 651 injured in international terrorist attacks between 1995 and 2000.

By the mid-1970s, international terrorists began to carry out operations on American soil. On 24 January 1975, the Puerto Rican Armed National Liberation Front killed four people when bombs exploded at the Fraunces Tavern in New York City. Eleven months later, on 29 December 1975, a bomb exploded in the TWA terminal at La Guardia Airport, killing eleven. No group ever claimed responsibility. The next major incident occurred on 26 February 1993, when a truck bomb exploded in the basement of New York's World Trade Center, killing six and wounding thousands. At his 1997trial, bombing mastermind Ramzi Yousef stated, "I support terrorism so long as it was against the United States government and against Israel."

On 11 September 2001, in the most murderous terrorist attack American history had yet witnessed, almost three thousand people were killed. Nineteen Middle Eastern terrorists hijacked four airplanes; one crashed into the Pentagon, two destroyed the twin towers of New York City's World Trade Center, and one, possibly headed for the White House, crashed in a wooded area of Pennsylvania. Although the hijackers left no message, they were clearly motivated by hatred of the United States and by a desire to force a change in American policy in the Middle East.

The enormity of the attack pushed terrorism to the top of the American political agenda, with President George W. Bush declaring "war on terror" in his 20 September 2001 address to a joint session of Congress. President Bush predicted that this new war could last for years or even decades. The World Trade Center attack also led to a major change in the way the United States deals with terrorism. Before 11 September 2001, the United States followed a police-justice model whereby police and intelligence agencies identified and apprehended terrorists and then turned them over to the justice system. After those attacks, however, the Bush Administration adopted a preemptive-war model, whereby the United States intends to strike at individual terrorists or terrorist groups anywhere in the world and has threatened to use all means necessary, from special forces to massive military force, to attack what it identifies as "terrorist states" that support international terrorism.

The adoption of this model led President Bush in his 29 January 2002 State of the Union address to talk about Iran, Iraq, and North Korea together as an "axis of evil" and to threaten military action against Iraq. This statement led to much uneasiness among allies of the United States, who feared that the administration's war on terrorism signaled a move toward unilateralism in U.S. foreign policy and the destabilization of international relations.

Bibliography

Harmon, Christopher. Terrorism Today. Portland, Ore.: Frank Cass, 2000.

Laqueur, Walter. The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Wilkinson, Paul, Terrorism and the Liberal State. New York: New York University Press, 1986.


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Russian History Encyclopedia: Terrorism
A half-century of Russian history was bloodstained by revolutionary terrorism. Its first outburst was the abortive April 1866 assassination attempt against Tsar Alexander II by Dmitry Karakozov. From then on, extremists of different ideological persuasions, with varying degrees of success, resorted to acts of terror as part of their struggle against the contemporary sociopolitical order.

Terrorist activity had a particularly strong impact on the country's life during two distinct periods. The first was the so-called heroic period, between 1878 and 1881, when the Party of the People's Will (Narodnaya Volya) - the first modern terrorist organization in the world - dominated the radical camp. Its campaign against the autocracy culminated in the assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881. Alexander III's government succeeded in disintegrating the People's Will; yet, after a twenty-year period of relative and deceptive calm, a new wave of terrorism erupted during the reign of Russia's last tsar, Nicholas II (1894 - 1917). Its perpetrators were members of various newly formed left-wing organizations, who implicated themselves in terrorist acts even when their parties in theory rejected terrorism as a suitable tactic. As radical activity reached its peak during the 1905 - 1907 crisis, terrorism became an all-pervasive phenomenon, affecting not only the elite civil and military circles but every layer of society. During the first decade of the twentieth century, the terrorists were responsible for approximately 17,000 casualties throughout the empire. Their attacks were indiscriminate, directed at a broad category of alleged "watchdogs of the old regime" and "oppressors of the poor."

Although terrorism subsided by late 1907, largely as a result of severe repressive measures employed by Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin, until the collapse of the imperial order in 1917 it remained a threatening weapon in the hands of extremists seeking the demise of the tsarist regime.

Bibliography

Footman, David. (1968). Red Prelude: A Biography of Zhelyabov. London: Barrie & Rockliff.

Geifman, Anna. (1993). Thou Shalt Kill: Revolutionary Terrorism in Russia, 1894 - 1917. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

—ANNA GEIFMAN


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Encyclopedia of Russian History. Copyright © 2004 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Columbia Encyclopedia: terrorism, the threat or use of violence, often against the civilian population, to achieve political or social ends, to intimidate opponents, or to publicize grievances. The term dates from the Reign of Terror (1793-94) in the French Revolution but has taken on additional meaning in the 20th cent. Terrorism involves activities such as assassinations, bombings, random killings, and hijackings. Used for political, not military, purposes, and most typically by groups too weak to mount open assaults, it is a modern tool of the alienated, and its psychological impact on the public has increased because of extensive coverage by the media. Political terrorism also may be part of a government campaign to eliminate the opposition, as under Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, and others, or may be part of a revolutionary effort to overthrow a regime. Terrorist attacks also are now a common tactic in guerrilla warfare. Governments find attacks by terrorist groups difficult to prevent; international agreements to tighten borders or return terrorists for trial may offer some deterrence.
Terrorism reaches back to ancient Greece and has occurred throughout history. Terrorism by radicals (of both the left and right) and by nationalists became widespread after World War II. Since the late 20th cent. acts of terrorism have been associated with the Italian Red Brigades, the Irish Republican Army, the Palestine Liberation Organization, Peru's Shining Path, Sri Lanka's Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, the Weathermen and some members of U.S. "militia" organizations, among many groups. Religiously inspired terrrorism has also occurred, such as that of extremist Christian opponents of abortion in the United States; of extremist Muslims associated with Hamas, Osama bin Laden's Al Qaeda, and other organizations; of extremist Sikhs in India; and of Japan's Aum Shinrikyo, who released nerve gas in Tokyo's subway system (1995).

In 1999 the UN Security Council unanimously called for better international cooperation in fighting terrorism and asked governments not to aid terrorists. The Sept. 11, 2001, attacks by Al Qaeda on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon-the most devastating terrorist attacks in history-prompted calls by U.S. political leaders for a world "war on terrorism." Although the U.S. effort to destroy Al Qaeda and overthrow the Afghani government that hosted it was initially successful, terrorism is not a movement but a tactic used by a wide variety of groups, some of which are regarded (and supported) as "freedom fighters" in various countries or by various peoples. So-called state-sponsored terrorism, in which governments provide support or protection to terrorist groups that carry out proxy attacks against other countries, also complicates international efforts to end terror attacks, but financial sanctions have been placed by many countries on organizations that directly or indirectly support terrorists. The 2001 bioterror attacks in which anthrax spores were mailed to various U.S. media and government offices may not be linked to the events of September 11, but they raised specter of biological and chemical terrorism and revealed the difficulty of dealing with such attacks.

Bibliography

See B. Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (1998).



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Mideast & N. Africa Encyclopedia: Terrorism
Violence directed primarily and randomly against civilians with the aim of intimidating them, achieving political goals, or exacting revenge for perceived grievances.

Since the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks that destroyed the twin World Trade Center skyscrapers in New York City and killed nearly 2,800 persons, terrorism arising out of conflicts in the Middle East has been a focus of international media attention. Concern about violence undertaken by groups and states it considered to be terrorists prompted the United States to declare a war on terrorism, two manifestations of which have been the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Despite this close association of terrorism with the Middle East, with the notable exception of the year 2001, the majority of terrorist incidents committed worldwide and the majority of victims of terrorism have been outside of or unrelated to political conflicts in the Middle East. Nevertheless, it is true that civilians somewhere in the Middle East have been victims of politically motivated violence every year since at least 1992.

Defining Terrorism

In trying to assess the significance of terrorism, the most difficult problem is the lack of an agreed-upon understanding of what the word terrorism means. Political scientists tend to restrict terrorism to acts of violence carried out by nonstate actors against civilians. Historians, sociologists, and experts in international humanitarian law, however, tend to use a broader definition that includes all premeditated acts of violence against civilians, whether carried out by nonstate political groups or by states. Governments - especially those confronting armed opposition groups - and the media generally use the political-science definition of terrorism, often expanding it to include violent acts against military as well as civilian victims. In contrast, the nonstate perpetrators of violence consider their actions to be legitimate forms of resistance to state terrorism aimed at suppressing self-determination, even though they may be directed against civilians (Kimmerling, p. 23). The notion of a legitimate right to resist state oppression is controversial, and no international legal convention addresses this matter. Nonstate groups generally cite the 1960 United Nations General Assembly Resolution on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples as recognizing their right of resistance. Indeed, that resolution declares, "forcible resistance to forcible denial of self-determination . . . is legitimate," and it says that nonstate groups may receive external support from other governments.

Giving a measure of international legitimacy to resistance struggles has complicated the problem of defining terrorism because it essentially has become a political decision whether a nonstate actor is deemed a terrorist or a genuine national liberation movement fighting for independence from foreign control or occupation. During the Cold War rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United States (1947 - 1991), such decisions tended to be based more on ideological factors than on objective assessments of the goals and motives of particular nonstate groups. For example, the Soviet Union provided clandestine support for the South Yemen independence movement (1963 - 1967) and for the Dhufar liberation movement in Oman (1965 - 1971) primarily because both areas at the time were under the control of Britain, a major U.S. ally. Similarly, the United States provided covert assistance to the Kurds in Iraq (1970 - 1975) and the Mojahedin in Afghanistan (1979 - 1989) primarily because in both cases the nonstate groups were fighting for independence from Soviet client regimes. The Soviet Union and the United States condemned as
terrorists those nonstate groups that were fighting against regimes the other country favored, and they praised as national resistance heroes those groups fighting against governments they opposed.

Over time, a special vocabulary of terrorism emerged. For instance, the term state terrorism came to be used for violent acts used by disfavored states to suppress resistance movements. The Soviet Union used this term to describe the policies of two U.S. allies: Israel, for the repression of Palestinians in the occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip after 1967; and Turkey, for the repression of its Kurdish minority after 1984. The United States, in turn, used state terrorism as early as the mid-1970s to describe the repressive domestic policies of states it considered to be Soviet allies, such as Iraq, Syria, and South Yemen. During the 1980s another term, state sponsor of terrorism, emerged to describe the support for nonstate groups provided by countries that clearly were not allied to either the Soviet Union or the United States. Iran and Libya were identified as the main state sponsors of terrorism, the former because of its assistance after 1982 to Hizbullah in Lebanon. In the case of Libya, the United States accused that country of supporting Palestinian groups that targeted U.S. and Israeli interests in Europe and of assisting several terrorist groups operating in north and central Africa.

Origins of Terrorism in the Arab - Israel Conflict

The superpower rivalry in and rhetoric about the Middle East tended both to obscure the local origins of terrorism and to frustrate efforts to address the multifaceted consequences of violence. This problem is best revealed in the Arab - Israel conflict, which began in 1948 separately from but in tandem with the Cold War and still continues unresolved even though the superpower conflict has ended. One significant legacy of the Cold War relationship to the Arab - Israel conflict has been a great volume of partisan literature, especially in the years after the formation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964. The Israeli - Palestinian struggle over pre-1948 Palestine (which became Israel plus the territories of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank in 1948) is the core of the Arab - Israel conflict. The literature on this aspect of the conflict illustrates the controversies in trying to achieve any relatively objective consensus on what groups merit designation as terrorists and what kinds of violent acts constitute terrorism. For this reason, it is a useful case to study.

For nearly thirty years prior to the signing of the Oslo Accord in September 1993, the State of Israel proclaimed the PLO and the various Palestinian resistance groups that comprised its membership to be terrorist organizations. Inevitably, there emerged a body of writings that supported the Israeli position, not just in Israel but also in Europe and North America. Although some of these studies were sophisticated and scholarly analyses of the PLO's goals and methods, other accounts were merely polemical denunciations of PLO tactics. Beginning in 1968 and continuing for more than a decade, armed Palestinian groups known as fidaʾiyyun (guerrillas) carried out numerous, violent operations that resulted in the deaths of civilians. Many of their actions were sensational incidents that attracted considerable media attention - a PLO objective, as the guerrillas hoped publicity would further their cause. The several international airplane hijackings, for example, culminated in September 1970 (known as Black September) with the hijacking of four planes in as many days, precipitating a civil war between the PLO and the army of Jordan. Attacks on Israeli interests abroad culminated in the seizing of Israeli athletes as hostages at the 1972 Olympic games in Munich, an incident that left eleven athletes dead. Sporadic cross-border raids into Israel (from Jordan and Lebanon) culminated in the temporary seizure of buildings in the northern Israeli towns of Kiryat Shmona and Maʿalot (April and May 1974) and the deaths of thirty-eight civilians, including many children. Rather than winning sympathy for the Palestinians as the perpetrators expected, such incidents created and reinforced a public image of the PLO as a terrorist organization.

In contrast to the official Israeli and U.S. views, the PLO saw itself as a national liberation movement dedicated to achieving Palestinian rights and resisting what it termed Israeli state terrorism. Its fighters were lauded as heroes and martyrs, and its operations against Israeli civilians were justified as defense of, or reprisals for, Israeli attacks on Palestinian refugee camps and assassinations of PLO leaders. The Soviet Union, the primary international backer of the PLO after 1968, tended to remain silent about many of the more sensational acts of violence by Palestinian guerrillas, but it continued to promote the PLO as a national liberation movement. Soviet support was especially significant after 1974 when Moscow encouraged diplomatic recognition of the PLO as the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. Quite separate from the Soviet backing for the PLO, a few academic studies and advocacy articles appeared that were sympathetic to Palestinian claims and rights. Although these writings were scarcer than the volumes of pro-Israeli literature and never achieved a similar impact on the mainstream U.S. media, they did have some influence on intellectuals in Africa, Asia, and Europe.

The Israeli - PLO conflict affected both regional and international politics by the late 1970s. This is because the PLO used Lebanon, where a large number of Palestinian refugees had lived since 1948, as a base for operations against Israel throughout the 1970s, and Israel responded with retaliatory raids against what it termed "terrorist nests" - suspected PLO facilities in refugee camps. Many Lebanese and Palestinian civilians died in these raids, and their deaths were described officially as "collateral damage" in a larger operation against "terrorist infrastructure." The PLO condemned Israeli air strikes as further evidence of state terror and also cited them as justification for its own continuing attacks across the Lebanon-Israel border. The escalating cycle of attacks and reprisals contributed to the civil war in Lebanon (1975 - 1989) and also led to an Israeli invasion of southern Lebanon in 1978. Israeli forces occupied a 6-mile-wide security strip, ostensibly to prevent attacks into Israel; this occupation lasted until 2000. A second Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982 resulted in a war with the PLO, its forced withdrawal from Lebanon under international protection, and the Israeli occupation of Beirut and all of southern Lebanon. However, almost as soon as the threat from the PLO seemed to be contained, Israel faced a new source of terrorism that stemmed directly from its occupation of Lebanon (which lasted until 1985).

A Lebanese group, Hizbullah, was formed in late 1982 with the initial aim of expelling Israeli forces from Lebanon. Hizbullah's tactics, which included suicide bombings against French and U.S. military forces in 1983 and, beginning in 1984, the kidnapping of European civilians to use as hostages for the release of its members held in Israeli jails, earned it an international reputation as a terrorist organization. Hizbullah, however, neither sought nor received any support from the Soviet Union. Like the revolutionary government that assumed power in Iran in 1979, Hizbullah was equally hostile to Soviet and U.S. policies in the Middle East. Although its objectives were first and foremost political, Hizbullah also was inspired by its own interpretation of Shiʿite Islam. Its frequent use of religious rhetoric to explain or to justify its actions tended to alienate the Soviet Union even more than its direct criticisms did. Thus, Hizbullah became one of the first major nonstate groups in the Middle East to lack a superpower patron. Despite or perhaps because of this status, Hizbullah succeeded in establishing a permanent presence in Lebanon's politics and in becoming a nonstate group whose actions Israel neither could control nor ignore.

Meanwhile, the removal of the PLO to Tunisia did not end its political influence among Palestinians, and when an intifada (uprising) erupted in December 1987 among Palestinians living under Israeli occupation in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the PLO gradually emerged as a main coordinating force for the resistance. New groups unaffiliated with the PLO also emerged during the intifada, principally HAMAS and Islamic Jihad. Unlike the PLO, which claimed to be inspired by secular ideas, HAMAS and Islamic Jihad cited religious ideals and percepts as at least partial justification for their resistance against Israeli rule. Concern about the increasing influence of groups such as HAMAS and Islamic Jihad may have prompted the leaders of Israel's Labor Party to begin negotiations with the PLO to end the long conflict. The political rapprochement between Israel and the PLO in 1993 not only was unexpected, but it also necessitated a re-evaluation of the negative ways each side had depicted the other. However, the years of intellectual and emotional investment in the terrorism paradigm made it difficult for some people on both sides to view formerly hated terrorists as legitimate partners in peace negotiations.
Thus, from the outset of the Oslo peace process, some Israelis and Palestinians were skeptical of the agreement and even were determined to overturn it. The assassination of Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin in November 1995 (by an Israeli opposed to the Oslo Accord) and the first suicide bombings undertaken in 1996 by HAMAS were significant terrorist incidents that led to multiple actions and reprisals that cumulatively undermined popular support for the peace process among both Israelis and Palestinians.

It was in this increasingly tense atmosphere that Israeli politician Ariel Sharon intervened in a manner that would have the effect (albeit at the time, unforeseen) of overturning the peace process. Sharon was one of those Israelis who distrusted and even opposed the Oslo Accord, and it is plausible that he never had changed his conviction that the PLO was a terrorist organization. When in September 2000 he led a group of Knesset members, under armed escort, into the Muslim religious complex in Jerusalem known as al-Haram al-Sharif, his intention was to assert Israeli sovereignty over a site that Jews claim is the Temple Mount - the location of their ancient temple destroyed by the Romans more than 2,000 years ago - and thus to prevent its possible return to Palestinian sovereignty, which had been proposed by some members of the Labor Party. The incident provoked clashes with Palestinian worshipers, and the next day Israeli police killed four protesting Palestinians as they emerged from Friday prayers at the al-Aqsa Mosque in al-Haram al-Sharif complex. The situation escalated rapidly as Palestinian policemen, in an effort to protect civilians, clashed with Israeli soldiers at checkpoints in the West Bank. The al-Aqsa intifada thus began, and subsequently its characteristic features included targeted assassinations of suspected Palestinian resistance leaders by Israel and retaliatory Palestinian suicide bombings at crowded civilian sites inside Israeli cities. By early 2001, Israel and its supporters were labeling all acts of violence from the Palestinian side as terrorism.

The U.S. "War on Terrorism"

Middle East terrorism, except for incidents such as the attack at the Munich Olympic games in 1972, generally has stayed within the region. However, Middle East - related terrorism acquired a global dimension with the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States by nineteen members of the al-Qaʿida network. Al-Qaʿida is a political organization founded by Saudi Arabian national Osama bin Ladin, and its objectives after 1991 were to attack the United States and its interests because it viewed the U.S. government as the main sponsor of regimes that it defined as "unjust," oppressive, and illegitimate. Ironically, bin Ladin collaborated with U.S. officials during the 1980s when he and the United States shared the same goal of forcing the Soviet Union to withdraw its troops from Afghanistan. But when the United States dispatched troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990, bin Ladin viewed this development as being no different from the situation of Soviet troops in Afghanistan - in both cases the army of an "imperialist" superpower occupying a weaker and Muslim country. Furthermore, the presence of U.S. military forces in Saudi Arabia meant that a non-Muslim army for the first time in more than 1,400 years was occupying the religiously sacred land in which were located Islam's two holiest sites, the cities of Mecca and Medina. Even though bin Ladin believed and practiced a very conservative interpretation of Sunni Islam, his primary objectives vis-à-vis the United States are political, not religious. Beginning with the bombing in the underground parking garage of the World Trade Center in 1993, persons close to his al-Qaʿida organization were implicated in several terrorist attacks. The most sensational incidents included suicide bombings outside the barracks housing U.S. military personnel in Saudi Arabia in 1996 and outside two U.S. embassies in East Africa in 1998. The 2001 attacks prompted the United States to declare a "war on terrorism," and the Taliban regime in Afghanistan became the first target because it provided sanctuary to al-Qaʿida and rejected requests for the extradition of bin Ladin and other leaders.

Its war on terrorism policy led the United States to focus on groups it designated as terrorist to an unprecedented extent. One consequence of this new preoccupation was that after 2001 Washington accepted the argument of Israeli prime minister Sharon that PLO chairman and Palestinian Authority president Yasir Arafat was condoning terrorist actions by groups such as HAMAS, Islamic Jihad, and his own Al-Fatah movement. When in spring 2002 the Israeli army reoccupied West Bank towns and villages that were supposed to be under the control of the Palestinian Authority, the United States effectively did not protest. Thus, the peace process between Israel and the PLO, seriously ailing since fall 2000, became an indirect but fatal casualty of the war on terrorism.

The war on terrorism is cause for concern among legal experts in the field of international humanitarian law, especially because states identified as sponsors of terrorism, such as Iraq, become legitimate targets for attack because they are thought to possess weapons of mass destruction that they might provide to terrorist groups. The experts believe that civilians, who have been the primary victims of violent conflicts since the early 1990s, will be the main victims again, and they cite statistics that demonstrate that this has been the case in both Afghanistan and Iraq.

The phenomenon of terrorism has prompted the drafting of several conventions, most notably the Rome Statute, that would make the intentional killing of civilians a war crime, no matter who is responsible (i.e., a government or a nonstate group). The intent is to criminalize violence against civilians so that individuals can be prosecuted. The European Union generally, and its member states such as Belgium specifically, have made the most progress in terms of accepting the idea that violence against civilians, whether undertaken by a state or nonstate organization, is terrorism and needs to be punished. Other states, including major countries such as China, Israel, Russia, and the United States, reject categorically the notion of state terrorism and insist that international laws pertaining to terrorism must limit definitions to nonstate groups that target civilians. Ultimately, one of the most effective ways of reducing terrorism is for states to identify and remove the causes that motivates terrorists, such as the denial of freedom and political participation, repressive political occupation, and poverty and despair.

Bibliography

Davis, Joyce M. Martyrs: Innocence, Vengeance, and Despair in theMiddle East. New York: Palgrave, 2003.

Falk, Richard. "Azmi Bishara, the Right of Resistance, and the Palestinian Ordeal." Journal of Palestine Studies 31, no. 2 (Winter 2002): 19 - 33.

Hirst, David. The Gun and the Olive Branch: The Roots of Violence in the Middle East, 3d edition. New York: Thunder Mouth's Press/Nation Books, 2004.

Picco, Giandomenico. Man without a Gun: One Diplomat'sSecret Struggle to Free the Hostages, Fight Terrorism, and End a War. New York: Times Books/Random House, 1999.

Ron, James. Frontiers and Ghettos: State Violence in Serbia and Israel. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.

Shlaim, Avi. The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World. New York: Norton, 2000.

Stern, Jessica. Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious MilitantsKill. New York: Ecco, 2003.

Victor, Barbara. Army of Roses: Inside the World of PalestinianWomen Suicide Bombers. Emmaus, PA: Rodale, 2003.

— ERIC HOOGLUND


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Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa. Copyright © 2004 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

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This entry contains information applicable to United States law only.
Terrorism

The unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property in order to coerce or intimidate a government or the civilian population in furtherance of political or social objectives.

Terrorism is the systematic use of terror or violence to achieve political goals. The targets of terrorism include government officials, identified individuals or groups, and innocent bystanders. In most cases terrorists seek to overthrow or destabilize an existing political regime, but totalitarian and dictatorial governments use terror to maintain their power. In the United States, a series of terrorist actions in the 1990s led to the enactment of the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (Pub. L. No. 104-132). This act sought to combat and prevent terrorism through the development of antiterrorism programs and the strengthening of procedures and penalties.

Terrorism has been used throughout human history and in every part of the world. Roman emperors practiced terror to maintain their regimes, the Spanish Inquisition used it to root out religious heretics, the French Revolution went through a period called the Reign of Terror, and in the post-Civil War southern United States, the Ku Klux Klan used illegal threats and violence to intimidate supporters of Reconstruction.

In the late twentieth century, terrorism became a tool of political groups in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. The growth of international terrorism led to kidnappings, hijacking of airplanes, bombing of airplanes and buildings, and armed attacks on government and public facilities. In the 1980s several countries including Libya, Iran, and Iraq were identified as supporting international terrorism by providing training, weapons, and safe havens.

In February 1993 the bombing of the World Trade Center in New York City, New York, killed six people and injured more than a thousand others. The bomb left a crater 200 by 100 feet wide and five stories deep. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Joint Terrorist Task Force identified and helped bring to trial twenty-two Islamic fundamentalist conspirators. The trial revealed extensive plans for terrorist acts in the United States, including attacks on government facilities.

In the 1990s the United States also became more concerned about domestic terrorist activities carried out by U.S. citizens without any foreign involvement. Beginning in 1978, a person who came to be known as the Unabomber targeted university scientists, airline employees, and other persons he associated with a dehumanized, technology driven society. The suspect killed three people and injured twenty-three others with package bombs. At his insistence major newspapers published his 35,000-word manifesto describing his antitechnology philosophy. In April 1996 a suspect, Theodore Kaczynski, was arrested for crimes associated with the Unabomber.

More than the Unabomber, however, the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, on April 19, 1995, galvanized concerns about domestic terrorism. The bombing killed 168 people and injured more than 500 others. The FBI arrested Timothy J. McVeigh and Terry Nichols, who were charged with murder and conspiracy. McVeigh and Nichols have been connected to the right-wing militia movement, which opposes the powers held by the federal government and believes that its members' right to bear arms is threatened. In June 1997 McVeigh was found guilty of murder and conspiracy and sentenced to death.

In the aftermath of the Oklahoma City bombing, President Bill Clinton and members of Congress proposed measures to address terrorism. The Antiterrorism Act was signed into law in April 1996. The law allocated $1 billion to fund federal programs to combat terrorism. The act also established a federal death penalty for terrorist murders and strengthened penalties for crimes committed against federal employees while performing their official duties. In addition, the act increased the penalties for conspiracies involving explosives and for the possession of nuclear materials, criminalized the use of chemical weapons, and required plastic explosives to contain "tagging" elements in the explosive materials for detection and identification purposes.

Under the law, the U.S. secretary of state can designate groups as terrorist organizations and prohibit fund-raising on behalf of these groups in the United States. The secretary of the treasury is authorized to freeze assets of these terrorist organizations and forbid U.S. citizens from conducting financial transactions with known terrorist states. In addition, any person who is a representative or member of a designated terrorist organization can be denied entry to the United States, and the U.S. attorney general can deny asylum to suspected terrorists.

See: second amendment.


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West's Encyclopedia of American Law. Copyright © 1998 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Military Dictionary: terrorism
(DOD) The calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological. See also antiterrorism; combatting terrorism; counterterrorism; force protection condition; terrorist; terrorist groups.




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US Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Words, 2003.

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Politics: terrorism

Acts of violence committed by groups that view themselves as victimized by some notable historical wrong. Although these groups have no formal connection with governments, they usually have the financial and moral backing of sympathetic governments. Typically, they stage unexpected attacks on civilian targets, including embassies and airliners, with the aim of sowing fear and confusion. Israel has been a frequent target of terrorism, but the United States has increasingly become its main target. (See also September 11 attacks, Osama bin Laden, Hezbollah, and Basque region.)



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The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Edited by E.D. Hirsch, Jr., Joseph F. Kett, and James Trefil. Copyright © 2002 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.

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Wikipedia: Terrorism
"Terrorist" redirects here. For other uses, see Terrorist (disambiguation).

Terrorism
Definitions
History of terrorism
International conventions
Anti-terrorism legislation
Counter-terrorism
War on Terrorism

By ideology
Communist
Capitalist
Eco-terrorism
Narcoterrorism
Nationalist
Ethnic
Religious
(Christian • Islamic • Jewish)
Types and tactics
Agro-terrorism
Bioterrorism
Car bombing
Environmental
Aircraft hijacking
Nuclear
Piracy
Propaganda of the deed
Proxy bomb
Suicide attack
State involvement
State terrorism
State sponsorship
United States and state terrorism
Pakistan and state terrorism
Russia and state terrorism
Iran and state terrorism
Sri Lanka and state terrorism
Configurations
Terrorist front organization
Lone-wolf fighter
Clandestine cell system

Historical
Reign of Terror
Red Terror
White Terror
Lists
Designated organizations
Incidents
v • d • e
Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion.[1] At present, there is no internationally agreed definition of terrorism.[2][3] Common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror), are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack), and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants.

Some definitions also include acts of unlawful violence and war. The history of terrorist organizations suggests that they do not select terrorism for its political effectiveness.[4] Individual terrorists tend to be motivated more by a desire for social solidarity with other members of their organization than by political platforms or strategic objectives, which are often murky and undefined.[4]

The word "terrorism" is politically and emotionally charged,[5] and this greatly compounds the difficulty of providing a precise definition. A 1988 study by the United States Army found that over 100 definitions of the word “terrorism” have been used.[6] The concept of terrorism is itself controversial because it is often used by states to delegitimize political or foreign opponents, and potentially legitimize the state's own use of terror against them. A less politically and emotionally charged, and better defined, term (used not only for terrorists, and not including all those who have been described as terrorists) is violent non-state actor.

Terrorism has been practiced by a broad array of political organizations for furthering their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments.[7] One form is the use of violence against noncombatants for the purpose of gaining publicity for a group, cause, or individual.[8]

Contents
1 Origin of term
2 Key criteria
3 Pejorative use
4 Types
4.1 Democracy and domestic terrorism
5 Religious terrorism
6 Perpetrators
6.1 Terrorist groups
6.2 State sponsors
6.3 State terrorism
7 Tactics
8 Responses
9 Mass media
10 History
11 See also
12 Further reading
13 References
14 External links
14.1 UN conventions
14.2 News monitoring websites specializing on articles on terrorism
14.3 Papers and articles on global terrorism
14.4 Papers and articles on terrorism and the United States
14.5 Papers and articles on terrorism and Israel
14.6 Other


Origin of term
Main article: Definition of terrorism
See also: State terrorism
"Terror" comes from a Latin word meaning "to frighten". The terror cimbricus was a panic and state of emergency in Rome in response to the approach of warriors of the Cimbri tribe in 105BC. The Jacobins cited this precedent when imposing a Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. After the Jacobins lost power, the word "terrorist" became a term of abuse. Although the Reign of Terror was imposed by a government, in modern times "terrorism" usually refers to the killing of innocent people by a private group in such a way as to create a media spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a "terrorist".[9] Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group "People's Retribution" (Народная расправа) in 1869.

In November 2004, a United Nations Security Council report described terrorism as any act "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act". (Note that this report does not constitute international law).[10]

In many countries, acts of terrorism are legally distinguished from criminal acts done for other purposes, and "terrorism" is defined by statute; see definition of terrorism for particular definitions. Common principles among legal definitions of terrorism provide an emerging consensus as to meaning and also foster cooperation between law enforcement personnel in different countries. Among these definitions there are several that do not recognize the possibility of legitimate use of violence by civilians against an invader in an occupied country and would, thus label all resistance movements as terrorist groups. Others make a distinction between lawful and unlawful use of violence. Ultimately, the distinction is a political judgment.[11]

Key criteria
Official definitions determine counter-terrorism policy, and are often developed to serve it. Most government definitions outline the following key criteria: target, objective, motive, perpetrator, and legitimacy or legality of the act. Terrorism is also often recognizable by a following statement from the perpetrators.

Violence – According to Walter Laqueur of the Center for Strategic and International Studies, "the only general characteristic of terrorism generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the threat of violence". However, the criterion of violence alone does not produce a useful definition, as it includes many acts not usually considered terrorism: war, riot, organized crime, or even a simple assault. Property destruction that does not endanger life is not usually considered a violent crime, but some have described property destruction by the Earth Liberation Front and Animal Liberation Front as violence and terrorism; see eco-terrorism.

Psychological impact and fear – The attack was carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact. Each act of terrorism is a “performance” devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols, to show power and to attempt to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively affect a government, while increasing the prestige of the given terrorist organization and/or ideology behind a terrorist act.[12]

Perpetrated for a political goal – Something that many acts of terrorism have in common is a political purpose. Terrorism is a political tactic, like letter-writing or protesting, which is used by activists when they believe that no other means will effect the kind of change they desire. The change is desired so badly that failure to achieve change is seen as a worse outcome than the deaths of civilians. This is often where the inter-relationship between terrorism and religion occurs. When a political struggle is integrated into the framework of a religious or "cosmic"[13] struggle, such as over the control of an ancestral homeland or holy site such as Israel and Jerusalem, failing in the political goal (nationalism) becomes equated with spiritual failure, which, for the highly committed, is worse than their own death or the deaths of innocent civilians. One definition that combines the key elements was developed at the George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies by Carsten Bockstette: "Terrorism is defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm political goals and/or desired long-term end states." [14]

Deliberate targeting of non-combatants – It is commonly held that the distinctive nature of terrorism lies in its intentional and specific selection of civilians as direct targets. Specifically, the criminal intent is shown when babies, children, mothers and the elderly are murdered, or injured and put in harm's way. Much of the time, the victims of terrorism are targeted not because they are threats, but because they are specific "symbols, tools, animals or corrupt beings" that tie into a specific view of the world that the terrorists possess. Their suffering accomplishes the terrorists' goals of instilling fear, getting their message out to an audience or otherwise satisfying the demands of their often radical religious and political agendas.[15]

Unlawfulness or illegitimacy – Some official (notably government) definitions of terrorism add a criterion of illegitimacy or unlawfulness[16] to distinguish between actions authorized by a government (and thus "lawful") and those of other actors, including individuals and small groups. Using this criterion, actions that would otherwise qualify as terrorism would not be considered terrorism if they were government sanctioned. For example, firebombing a city, which is designed to affect civilian support for a cause, would not be considered terrorism if it were authorized by a government. This criterion is inherently problematic and is not universally accepted, because: it denies the existence of state terrorism; the same act may or may not be classed as terrorism depending on whether its sponsorship is traced to a "legitimate" government; "legitimacy" and "lawfulness" are subjective, depending on the perspective of one government or another; and it diverges from the historically accepted meaning and origin of the term.[17][18][19][20] For these reasons, this criterion is not universally accepted; most dictionary definitions of the term do not include this criterion.

Pejorative use
The terms "terrorism" and "terrorist" (someone who engages in terrorism) carry strong negative connotations. These terms are often used as political labels, to condemn violence or the threat of violence by certain actors as immoral, indiscriminate, unjustified or to condemn an entire segment of a population.[21] Those labelled "terrorists" by their opponents rarely identify themselves as such, and typically use other terms or terms specific to their situation, such as separatist, freedom fighter, liberator, revolutionary, vigilante, militant, paramilitary, guerrilla, rebel or any similar-meaning word in other languages and cultures. Jihadi, mujaheddin, and fedayeen are similar Arabic words which have entered the English lexicon. It is common for both parties to a conflict to describe each other as terrorists.

On the question of whether particular terrorist acts, such as killing civilians, can be justified as the lesser evil in a particular circumstance, philosophers have expressed different views: while, according to David Rodin, utilitarian philosophers can (in theory) conceive of cases in which the evil of terrorism is outweighed by the good which could not be achieved in a less morally costly way, in practice the "harmful effects of undermining the convention of non-combatant immunity is thought to outweigh the goods that may be achieved by particular acts of terrorism".[22] Among the non-utilitarian philosophers, Michael Walzer argued that terrorism can be morally justified in only one specific case: when "a nation or community faces the extreme threat of complete destruction and the only way it can preserve itself is by intentionally targeting non-combatants, then it is morally entitled to do so".[22]

In his book "Inside Terrorism" Bruce Hoffman wrote in Chapter One: Defining Terrorism that

"On one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, `'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization `terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism."[5]
The pejorative connotations of the word can be summed up in the aphorism, "One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter". This is exemplified when a group using irregular military methods is an ally of a state against a mutual enemy, but later falls out with the state and starts to use those methods against its former ally. During World War II, the Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army was allied with the British, but during the Malayan Emergency, members of its successor (the Malayan Races Liberation Army), were branded "terrorists" by the British.[23][24] More recently, Ronald Reagan and others in the American administration frequently called the Afghan Mujahideen "freedom fighters" during their war against the Soviet Union,[25] yet twenty years later, when a new generation of Afghan men are fighting against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers, their attacks are labelled "terrorism" by George W. Bush.[26][27] Groups accused of terrorism understandably prefer terms reflecting legitimate military or ideological action.[28][29][30] Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University, defines "terrorist acts" as attacks against civilians for political or other ideological goals, and goes on to say "There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly misleading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless."[31]

Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called "terrorists" by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called "statesmen" by similar organizations. Two examples of this phenomenon are the Nobel Peace Prize laureates Menachem Begin and Nelson Mandela.[32][33][34][35][36][37][38]

Sometimes states which are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether or not members of a certain organization are terrorists. For instance, for many years, some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) as terrorists while the IRA was using methods against one of the United States' closest allies (Britain) which Britain branded as terrorism. This was highlighted by the Quinn v. Robinson case.[39][40]

For these and other reasons, media outlets wishing to preserve a reputation for impartiality are extremely careful in their use of the term.[41][42]

Types
In the spring of 1975, the Law Enforcement Assistant Administration in the United States formed the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. One of the five volumes that the committee was entitled Disorders and Terrorism, produced by the Task Force on Disorders and Terrorism under the direction H.H.A. Cooper, Director of the Task Force staff.[43] The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.

Civil Disorders – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security, and normal functioning of the community.
Political Terrorism – Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
Non-Political Terrorism – Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes but which exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain high degree of fear for coercive purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective.”
Quasi-Terrorism – The activities incidental to the commission of crimes of violence that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction. For example, the fleeing felon who takes hostages is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different.
Limited Political Terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the State.
Official or State Terrorism –"referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.” It may also be referred to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.
In an analysis prepared for U.S. Intelligence[44] four typologies are mentioned.

Nationalist-Separatist
Religious Fundamentalist
New Religious
Social Revolutionary



Democracy and domestic terrorism
The relationship between domestic terrorism and democracy is very complex. Terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom, and is least common in the most democratic nations.[45][46][47][48] However, one study suggests that suicide terrorism may be an exception to this general rule. Evidence regarding this particular method of terrorism reveals that every modern suicide campaign has targeted a democracy- a state with a considerable degree of political freedom. The study suggests that concessions awarded to terrorists during the 1980s and 1990s for suicide attacks increased their frequency.[49]

Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democracies include ETA in Spain under Francisco Franco, the Shining Path in Peru under Alberto Fujimori, the Kurdistan Workers Party when Turkey was ruled by military leaders and the ANC in South Africa. Democracies, such as the United States, Israel, Indonesia, and the Philippines, also have experienced domestic terrorism.

While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground than other regimes, an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a perceived dilemma: whether to maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the problem; or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of supporting civil liberties. This dilemma, some social theorists would conclude, may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s); namely, to delegitimize the state.[50]

Religious terrorism
Main article: Religious terrorism
Religious terrorism is terrorism performed by groups or individuals, the motivation of which is typically rooted in the faith based tenets. Terrorist acts throughout the centuries have been performed on religious grounds with the hope to either spread or enforce a system of belief, viewpoint or opinion. Religious terrorism does not in itself necessarily define a specific religious standpoint or view, but instead usually defines an individual or a group view or interpretation of that belief system's teachings.

Perpetrators
The perpetrators of acts of terrorism can be individuals, groups, or states. According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war. However, the most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive cells, highly motivated to serve a particular cause and many of the most deadly operations in recent times, such as the September 11 attacks, the London underground bombing, and the 2002 Bali bombing were planned and carried out by a close clique, composed of close friends, family members and other strong social networks. These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient telecommunications to succeed where others had failed.[51] Over the years, many people have attempted to come up with a terrorist profile to attempt to explain these individuals' actions through their psychology and social circumstances. Others, like Roderick Hindery, have sought to discern profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists. Some security organizations designate these groups as violent non-state actors.[52]

It has been found that a "terrorist" will look, dress, and behave like a normal person, until he or she executes the assigned mission. Terrorist profiling based on personality, physical, or sociological traits would not appear to be particularly useful. The physical and behavioral deSCRIPTion of the terrorist could describe almost any normal person.[53]

Terrorist groups
Main articles: List of designated terrorist organizations and Lone wolf (terrorism)
State sponsors
Main article: State-sponsored terrorism
A state can sponsor terrorism by funding or harboring a terrorist organization. Opinions as to which acts of violence by states consist of state-sponsored terrorism or not vary widely. When states provide funding for groups considered by some to be terrorist, they rarely acknowledge them as such.

State terrorism
Main article: State terrorism
“ Civilization is based on a clearly defined and widely accepted yet often unarticulated hierarchy. Violence done by those higher on the hierarchy to those lower is nearly always invisible, that is, unnoticed. When it is noticed, it is fully rationalized. Violence done by those lower on the hierarchy to those higher is unthinkable, and when it does occur is regarded with shock, horror, and the fetishization of the victims. ”
— Derrick Jensen [54]

As with "terrorism" the concept of "state terrorism" is controversial.[55] The Chairman of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee has stated that the Committee was conscious of the 12 international Conventions on the subject, and none of them referred to State terrorism, which was not an international legal concept. If States abused their power, they should be judged against international conventions dealing with war crimes, international human rights and international humanitarian law.[56] Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan has said that it is "time to set aside debates on so-called 'state terrorism'. The use of force by states is already thoroughly regulated under international law"[57] However, he also made clear that, "...regardless of the differences between governments on the question of definition of terrorism, what is clear and what we can all agree on is any deliberate attack on innocent civilians, regardless of one's cause, is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism."[58]

State terrorism has been used to refer to terrorist acts by governmental agents or forces. This involves the use of state resources employed by a state's foreign policies, such as using its military to directly perform acts of terrorism. Professor of Political Science, Michael Stohl cites the examples that include Germany’s bombing of London and the U.S. atomic destruction of Hiroshima during World War II. He argues that “the use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents." They also cite the First strike option as an example of the "terror of coercive diplomacy" as a form of this, which holds the world hostage with the implied threat of using nuclear weapons in "crisis management." They argue that the institutionalized form of terrorism has occurred as a result of changes that took place following World War II. In this analysis, state terrorism exhibited as a form of foreign policy was shaped by the presence and use of weapons of mass destruction, and that the legitimizing of such violent behavior led to an increasingly accepted form of this state behavior. (Michael Stohl, “The Superpowers and International Terror” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Atlanta, March 27-April 1, 1984;"Terrible beyond Endurance? The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism." 1988;The State as Terrorist: The Dynamics of Governmental Violence and Repression, 1984 P49).

State terrorism has also been used to describe peace time actions by governmental agents or forces, such as the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103. Charles Stewart Parnell described William Gladstone's Irish Coercion Act as terrorism in his "no-Rent manifesto" in 1881, during the Irish Land War.[59] The concept is also used to describe political repressions by governments against their own civilian population with the purpose to incite fear. For example, taking and executing civilian hostages or extrajudicial elimination campaigns are commonly considered "terror" or terrorism, for example during Red Terror or Great Terror.[60] Such actions are often also described as democide which has been argued to be equivalent to state terrorism.[61] Empirical studies on this have found that democracies have little democide.[62][63]

Tactics
Main article: Tactics of terrorism
Terrorism is a form of asymmetric warfare, and is more common when direct conventional warfare either cannot be (due to differentials in available forces) or is not being used to resolve the underlying conflict.

The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large-scale, unresolved political conflict. The type of conflict varies widely; historical examples include:

Secession of a territory to form a new sovereign state
Dominance of territory or resources by various ethnic groups
Imposition of a particular form of government
Economic deprivation of a population
Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army
Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity, usually using explosives or poison.[64] There is concern about terrorist attacks employing weapons of mass destruction. Terrorist organizations usually methodically plan attacks in advance, and may train participants, plant "undercover" agents, and raise money from supporters or through organized crime. Communication may occur through modern telecommunications, or through old-fashioned methods such as couriers.

Responses
Main article: Responses to terrorism
Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the political spectrum and reassessments of fundamental values. The term counter-terrorism has a narrower connotation, implying that it is directed at terrorist actors.

Specific types of responses include:

Targeted laws, criminal procedures, deportations, and enhanced police powers
Target hardening, such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers
Preemptive or reactive military action
Increased intelligence and surveillance activities
Preemptive humanitarian activities
More permissive interrogation and detention policies
Mass media
Media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism, to expose issues that would otherwise be ignored by the media. Some consider this to be manipulation and exploitation of the media.[65] Others consider terrorism itself to be a symptom of a highly controlled mass media, which does not otherwise give voice to alternative viewpoints, a view expressed by Paul Watson who has stated that controlled media is responsible for terrorism, because "you cannot get your information across any other way". Paul Watson's organization Sea Shepherd has itself been branded "eco-terrorist", although it claims to have not caused any casualties.

The internet has created a new channel for groups to spread their messages. This has created a cycle of measures and counter measures by groups in support of and in opposition to terrorist movements. In fact, the United Nations has created its own online counter-terrorism resource.[66]

The mass media will, on occasion censor organizations involved in terrorism (through self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. However, this may encourage organizations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media. Conversely James F. Pastor explains the significant relationship between terrorism and the media, and the underlying benefit each receives from the other.[67]

There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related.

—Novelist William Gibson[68]

History


Number of terrorist incidents 2009 (January–June)Main article: History of terrorism
The term "terrorism" was originally used to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club during the "Reign of Terror" in the French Revolution. "Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible," said Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre. In 1795, Edmund Burke denounced the Jacobins for letting "thousands of those hell hounds called terrorists" loose upon the people of France.

In January 1858, Italian patriot Felice Orsini threw three bombs in an attempt to assassinate French Emperor Napoleon III.[69] Eight bystanders were killed and 142 injured.[69] The incident played a crucial role as an inspiration for the development of the early Russian terrorist groups.[69] Russian Sergey Nechayev, who founded People's Retribution in 1869, described himself as a "terrorist", an early example of the term being employed in its modern meaning.[9] Nechayev's story is told in fictionalized form by Fyodor Dostoevsky in the novel The Possessed. German anarchist writer Johann Most dispensed "advice for terrorists" in the 1880s.[70]

See also
Aircraft hijacking
Airport security
Bomb
Bomb disposal
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF)
Christian Terrorism
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
Communist terrorism
Counter-terrorism
Crimes against humanity
Cyber-terrorism
Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
Domestic terrorism in the United States
Eco-terrorism
Extremism
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
Federal Air Marshal Service (FAMS)
Federal crime
Genocide
Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism
Guerrilla warfare
Hate crime
Hijacking
Human rights

Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
Insurgency
International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol)
Islamic Terrorism
Israel Police
Jewish Terrorism
List of designated terrorist organizations
List of terrorist incidents
Manhunt (military)
Mass murder
Organized crime
Paramilitary
Special forces
Suicide attack
S.W.A.T
U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP)
United States Secret Service
War crime
War on Terrorism
White supremacy
Narcoterrorism
Patriot Act
PDD-62
Propaganda by deed
Strategy of tension
Terrorism Information Awareness Program
Unconventional warfare
VNSA



State terrorism:

Pakistani state terrorism
State terrorism by Iran
State terrorism and Russia
State terrorism and the United States
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Terrorism
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Terrorism

Further reading
Bockstette, Carsten: "Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques" George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies Occasional Paper Series, Volume 20, Dezember 2008, ISSN 1863-6039, pp. 1–28
Christian Buder, "Die Todesstrafe, Tabu und Terror", VDM-Verlag, Saarbrücken, 2008, ISBN 978-3-8364-5163-5
Köchler, Hans (ed.), Terrorism and National Liberation. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Question of Terrorism. Frankfurt a. M./Bern/New York: Peter Lang, 1988, ISBN 3-8204-1217-4
Köchler, Hans. Manila Lectures 2002. Terrorism and the Quest for a Just World Order. Quezon City (Manila): FSJ Book World, 2002, ISBN 0-9710791-2-9
Laqueur, Walter. No End to War - Terrorism in the 21st century, New York, 2003, ISBN 0-8264-1435-4
Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, eds. Terrorism : essential primary sources. Thomson Gale, 2006. ISBN 9781414406213 Library of Congress. Jefferson or Adams Bldg General or Area Studies Reading Rms LC Control Number: 2005024002.
Lewis, Jeff, Language Wars: The Role of Media and Culture in Global Terror and Political Violence, Pluto Books, London, 2005.
Lieberman, David M. Sorting the revolutionary from the terrorist: The delicate application of the "Political Offense" exception in U.S. extradition case, Stanford Law Review, Volume 59, Issue 1, 2006, pp. 181–211
Matovic, Violeta, Suicide Bombers Who's Next, Belgrade, The National Counter Terrorism Committee, ISBN 978-86-908309-2-3
Sunga, Lyal S., US Anti-Terrorism Policy and Asia’s Options, in Johannen, Smith and Gomez, (eds.) September 11 & Political Freedoms: Asian Perspectives (Select) (2002) 242–264.
Arno Tausch 'Against Islamophobia. Quantitative analyses of global terrorism, world political cycles and center periphery structures' Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers (for info: https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/), 2007
Anderson, Sean; Sloan, Stephen (1995). Historical dictionary of terrorism. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-2914-5.
Charles Tilly, Terror, Terrorism, Terrorists in Sociological Theory (2004) 22, 5-13 online
Schmid, Alex (Ed.) [4], UN Forum on Crime and Society. Special Issue on Terrorism. 2004, Vol 4:1/2.
References
^ "Terrorism". Merriam-Webster's Dictionary. 1795. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/terrorism.
^ Angus Martyn, The Right of Self-Defence under International Law-the Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11 September, Australian Law and Bills Digest Group, Parliament of Australia Web Site, 12 February 2002
^ Thalif Deen. POLITICS: U.N. Member States Struggle to Define Terrorism, Inter Press Service, 25 July 2005
^ a b Abrahms, Max (March 2008). "What Terrorists Really Want: Terrorist Motives and Counterterrorism Strategy" (PDF 1933 KB). International Security (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) 32 (4): 86–89. ISSN 0162-2889. http://maxabrahms.com/pdfs/DC_250-1846.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-04.
^ a b Hoffman, Bruce "Inside Terrorism" Columbia University Press 1998 ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Page 32. See review in The New York TimesInside Terrorism
^ Dr. Jeffrey Record, Bounding the Global War on Terrorism(PDF)
^ "Terrorism". Encyclopædia Britannica. pp. 3. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071797. Retrieved 2006-08-11.
^ [http://www.asap-spssi.org/pdf/asap019.pdf "politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant"]
^ a b Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 77.
^ "UN Reform". United Nations. 2005-03-21. Archived from the original on 2007-04-27. http://web.archive.org/web/20070427012107/http://www.un.org/unifeed/SCRIPT.asp?SCRIPTId=73. Retrieved 2008-07-11. "The second part of the report, entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism - an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community - as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act.""
^ Khan, Ali (1987). "A Theory of International Terrorism" (PDF). Social Science Research Network. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=935347. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 125–135.
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press.
^ Bockstette, Carsten (2008). "Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques" (PDF). George C. Marshall Center Occasional Paper Series (20). ISSN 1863-6039. http://www.marshallcenter.org/mcpublicweb/MCDocs/files/College/F_ResearchProgram/occPapers/occ-paper_20-en.pdf. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
^ Juergensmeyer, Mark (2000). Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. pp. 127–128.
^ "Terrorism in the United States 1999" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Investigation. http://www.fbi.gov/publications/terror/terror99.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ "AskOxford Search Results - terrorist". AskOxford. AskOxford. http://www.askoxford.com/results/?view=dev_dict&field-12668446=terrorism&branch=13842570&textsearchtype=exact&sortorder=score%2Cname. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ "Cambridge International Dictionary of English". Dictionary.cambridge.org. http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=82104&dict=CALD. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. 1979-10-20. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/terrorism. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. 1979-10-20. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=terrorism. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ B'Tselem Head of ISA defines a terrorist as any Palestinian killed by Israel
^ a b Rodin, David (2006). Terrorism. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge
^ Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army Britannica Concise
^ Dr Chris Clark "Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948". Archived from the original on 2007-06-08. http://web.archive.org/web/20070608150502/http://awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/malaya/index.htm. , 16 June 2003
^ Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference 8 March, 1985. On the Spartacus Educational web site
^ "President Meets with Afghan Interim Authority Chairman". Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. 2002-01-29. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020128-13.html. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ President Discusses Progress in War on Terrorism to National Guard White House web site February 9, 2006
^ Sudha Ramachandran Death behind the wheel in Iraq Asian Times, November 12, 2004, "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..."
^ Alex Perry How Much to Tip the Terrorist? Time Magazine, September 26, 2005. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term “freedom fighters.”
^ Terrorism: concepts, causes, and conflict resolution George Mason University Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003
^ Humphreys, Adrian. "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'", National Post, January 17, 2006.
^ Theodore P. Seto The Morality of Terrorism Includes a list in the Times published on July 23, 1946 which were described as Jewish terrorist actions, including those launched by Irgun which Begin was a leading member
^ BBC News: Profiles: Menachem Begin BBC website "Under Begin's command, the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence."
^ Eqbal Ahmad "Straight talk on terrorism" Monthly Review, January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin"
^ NEWS: World: Middle East: Sharon's legacy does not include peace[dead link]BBC website "Ariel Sharon will be compared to Menachem Begin, another warrior turned statesman, who gave up the Sinai and made peace with Egypt."
^ Lord Desai Hansard, House of Lords 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "However, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin — to give just three examples — were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom."
^ BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures."
^ BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman"
^ Quinn v. Robinson (pdf), 783 F2d. 776 (9th Cir. 1986)(PDF), web site of the Syracuse University College of Law
^ Page 17, Northern Ireland: TP , T , S 11 (PDF) Queen's University Belfast School of Law
^ "Guardian Unlimited style guide". http://www.guardian.co.uk/styleguide/page/0,5817,184833,00.html.
^ "BBC editorial guidelines on the use of language when reporting terrorism" (DOC). http://www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/assets/advice/guidanceontheuseoflanguagewhenreportingterrorism.doc.
^ Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976)
^ Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press,2002
^ "Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives". http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/05-terror.html.
^ "Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives" (PDF). http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.ksg/povterr.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ "Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism" (PDF). 2004. http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.ksg/povterr.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ "Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism: Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism" (PDF). 2005. http://titan.iwu.edu/~econ/uer/articles/kevin_goldstein.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1–19.
^ shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State," Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. pp467.
^ Sageman, Mark (2004). Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia, PA: U. of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 166–67. ISBN 978-0812238082.
^ Williams, Phil (2008). "Violent Non-State Actors and National and International Security". http://se2.isn.ch/serviceengine/FileContent?serviceID=ISFPub&fileid=8EEBA9FE-478E-EA2C-AA15-32FC9A59434A&lng=en. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
^ Library of Congress – Federal Research Division The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism
^ Endgame: Resistance, by Derrick Jensen, Seven Stories Press, 2006, ISBN 158322730X, pg IX
^ "Pds Sso". Eprints.unimelb.edu.au. http://eprints.unimelb.edu.au/archive/00000137/01/Primorat.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Addressing Security Council, Secretary-General Calls On Counter-Terrorism Committee To Develop Long-Term Strategy To Defeat Terror". Un.org. http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2002/SC7276.doc.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Lind, Michael (2005-05-02). "The Legal Debate is Over: Terrorism is a War Crime | The New America Foundation". Newamerica.net. http://newamerica.net/publications/articles/2005/the_legal_debate_is_over_terrorism_is_a_war_crime. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "Press conference with Kofi Annan & FM Kamal Kharrazi". Un.org. 2002-01-26. http://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/sg-teheran26.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ "The "No Rent" Manifesto.; Text Of The Document Issued By The Land Leag... - Article Preview - The". New York Times. 2009-08-02. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C04E6DF113CEE3ABC4951DFB667838A699FDE. Retrieved 2009-08-10.
^ Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stéphane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 0-674-07608-7
^ Kisangani, E. (2007). "The Political Economy Of State Terror" (PDF). Defence and Peace Economics 18 (5): 405–414. doi:10.1080/10242690701455433. http://www.informaworld.com/index/781318312.pdf. Retrieved 2008-04-02.
^ Death by Government By R.J. Rummel New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1994. Online links: [1][2][3]
^ No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust?[dead link], Barbara Harff, 2003.
^ Suicide bombings are the most effective terrorist act in this regard. See the following works:
Hoffman, Bruce (June 2003). "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism". Atlantic Monthly 291 (5): pp. 40–47. http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200306/hoffman.
Pape, Robert A.. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism" (reprint). American Political Science Review 97 (3): 343–361. http://www.danieldrezner.com/research/guest/Pape1.pdf.
Ricolfi, Luca (2005). "Palestinians 1981–2003". in Gambetta, Diego. Making Sense of Suicide Missions (1st ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 76–130. ISBN 9780199276998.
Cited in Richardson, Louise (2006). What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Terrorist Threat. London, UK: John Murray. p. 33. ISBN 0719563062.
^ The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment Paul Wilkinson. Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol.9, No.2 (Summer 1997), pp.51–64 Published by Frank Cass, London.
^ "Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee]". http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/. Retrieved 2009-06-17.
^ Pastor, James F. (2009). Terrorism & Public Safety Policing: Implications of the Obama Presidency. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-4398-1580-9.
^ his blog William Gibson's blog, October 31, 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
^ a b c Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context, p. 38
^ Crenshaw, p. 44.
External links
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UN conventions
United Nations:Conventions on Terrorism
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: "Conventions against terrorism". Archived from the original on 2007-08-05. http://web.archive.org/web/20070805001945/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html. "There are 12 major multilateral conventions and protocols related to states' responsibilities for combating terrorism. But many states are not yet party to these legal instruments, or are not yet implementing them."
UNODC - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime - Terrorism Prevention
News monitoring websites specializing on articles on terrorism
Insurgency Research Group – Multi-expert blog dedicated to the study of terrorism, insurgency and the development of counter-insurgency policy.
A reliable and daily updated Open Sources Center that includes a "Terrorism" section. by ISRIA.
Diplomacy Monitor - Terrorism
Jihad Monitor
Combating Terrorism Center at Westpoint
Papers and articles on global terrorism
"Al Qaeda Today: The New Face of the Global Jihad," by Marlena Telvick, PBS Frontline, January 2005."frontline: al qaeda's new front: al qaeda today". PBS. 2005-01-25. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/etc/today.html. Retrieved 2009-08-10. Former CIA caseworker Dr. Marc Sageman explains how Al Qaeda has evolved from an operational organization into a larger social movement, and the implications for U.S. counterterror efforts.
Bockstette, Carsten: "Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques" George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies Occasional Paper Series, Volume 20, Dezember 2008, ISSN 1863-6039, pp. 1–28
Audrey Kurth Cronin, "Behind the Curve: Globalization and International Terrorism," International Security, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Winter 2002/03), pp. 30–58.
"European Union’s Security With Regard to the International Situation After September 2001". Archived from the original on 2007-05-14. http://web.archive.org/web/20070514163519/http://www.analyzingeu.eu/konrad/2007/european-union-security-after-september-2001/. – Special Report on Terrorism in the European Union on 'Analyzing EU'
Stathis N. Kalyvas, The Paradox of Terrorism in Civil Wars (2004) in Journal of Ethics 8:1, 97–138.
Prof. Troy Duster "From Theatre of War to Terrorism"
Syed Ubaidur Rahman "Thousands of Muslims gather to denounce terrorism"
Hans Köchler, The United Nations, the International Rule of Law and Terrorism. Supreme Court of the Philippines, Centenary Lecture (2002)
Hans Köchler, The United Nations and International Terrorism. Challenges to Collective Security (2002)
GTD, successor to the Terrorism Knowledge Base
Global War on Terrorism / Strategic Studies Institute
Terrorism Research Center – Terrorism research site started in 1996.
Terror Finance Blog – Multi-expert website dealing with terrorism finance issues.
Terrorism Research – International Terrorism and Security Research
Scale invariance in global terrorism
Security News Line: Global Terrorism and Counter-terrorism www.debriefed.org
The Evolution of Terrorism in 2005. A statistical assessment An article by Rik Coolsaet and Teun Van de Voorde, University of Ghent
Terrorism/Anti-terrorism – An analysis on the causes and uses of terrorism
["frontline: al qaeda's new front". PBS. 2005-01-25. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/. Retrieved 2009-08-10. ] "Al Qaeda's New Front," PBS "Frontline" January 2005. In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, the locus of the investigation quickly shifted to Europe and the network of radical Islamic jihadis who are part of "Eurabia," the continent's expanding Muslim communities. Since 9/11 America has been spared what authorities feared and expected: a second wave of attacks. Instead Europe, once a logistical base for Islamic radicals and a safe haven, has itself become the target.
Teaching Terrorism and Counterterrorism with lesson plans, bibliographies, resources; from US Military Academy
Germany's contribution to the fight against global terrorism
Quantitative World System Studies Contradict Current Islamophobia: World Political Cycles, Global Terrorism, and World Development. Arno Tausch, Innsbruck University – Faculty of Political Science and Sociology – Department of Political Science, Turkish Journal of International Relations, Vol. 6, No. 1 & 2, Spring-Summer 2007, available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=976864
The Intelligence & Terrorism Information Center
Information Terrorism: Can You Trust Your Toaster?
Papers and articles on terrorism and the United States
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism. by Robert L. Worden, Ph.D.
Leonard Peikoff on Terrorism This article was published in the New York Times on October 2, 2001.
Ivan Arreguín-Toft, "Tunnel at the End of the Light: A Critique of U.S. Counter-terrorist Grand Strategy,"Cambridge Review of International Affairs, Vol. 15, No. 3 (2002), pp. 549–563.
The Terrorism Index – Terrorism "scorecard" from Foreign Policy Magazine and the Center for American Progress
The reality show: the Watch, the Fight
Most Wanted Terrorists- Rewards for Justice
Law, Terrorism and Homeland Security. A collection of articles.
"The Security Constitution," UCLA Law Review, Vol. 53, No. 29, 2005
The Enemy Within, PBS Frontline October 2006
Terrorist Network Operating Openly In The United States by Jane Franklin, ZNET, April 30 2005
Papers and articles on terrorism and Israel
Ariel Merari, "Terrorism as a Strategy in Insurgency," Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 5, No. 4 (Winter 1993), pp. 213–251.
Israel Global Terror desk
Victims of Palestinian Violence and Terrorism since September 2000
of Terrorist Analysis of Terrorist
Other
Terrorism Resources from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Terrorism at the Open Directory Project
START National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism
The European Union counterterrorism policy before and after the 9/11 attacks
Video: Dr Adam Dolnik: What makes a terrorist? A Lowy Institute lecture on SlowTV, August 2008
About the Qassam-sderot media center
Paradise Poisoned: Learning About Conflict, Development and Terrorism from Sri Lanka's Civil Wars by John Richardson
Ontologies of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Terrorism
The Supreme Court of India adopted Alex P. Schmid's definition of terrorism in a 2003 ruling (Madan Singh vs. State of Bihar), "defin[ing] acts of terrorism veritably as 'peacetime equivalents of war crimes." [5]
Jack Goody What is a terrorist? Published in: journal History and Anthropology, Volume 13, Issue 2 2002 , pages 139–142 DOI: 10.1080/0275720022000001219
Schmid and Jongman (1988): "Terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-)clandestine individual, group, or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal, or political reasons, whereby—in contrast to assassination—the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly (targets of opportunity) or selectively (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators. Threat- and violence-based communication processes between terrorist (organization), (imperiled) victims, and main targets are use to manipulate the main target (audience(s), turning it into a target of terror, a target of demands, or a target of attention, depending on whether intimidation, coercion, or propaganda is primarily sought"."Academic Consensus Definition of "Terrorism," Schmid 1988, United Nations website". Archived from the original on 2007-06-27. http://web.archive.org/web/20070627231104/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_definitions.html. . For more detailed information, see: Schmid, Jongman et al. Political terrorism: a new guide to actors, authors, concepts, data bases, theories, and literature. Amsterdam: North Holland, Transaction Books, 1988. ISBN 1412804698
Staff. U.S. Terrorism in the Americas an Encyclopedia "on violence promoted, supported and carried out by both the U.S. government and its servants in Latin America
"Terror on the Streets of New York, Take One" by David Wallace-Wells, Newsweek, February 16 2009
v • d • eWar on Terrorism

Timeline · Casualties · Theaters · Criticism · ISAF

Participants Operational ISAF · Operation Enduring Freedom participants · Multinational force in Iraq · Afghanistan · Northern Alliance · Iraq (Iraqi Army) · NATO · Pakistan · United Kingdom · United States · Philippines · Ethiopia

Targets al-Qaeda · Osama bin Laden · Abu Sayyaf · Iraqi insurgency · Hamas · Islamic Courts Union · Jemaah Islamiyah · Taliban · Jaish-e-Mohammed · Harkat-ul-Jihad-al-Islami · Hizbul Mujahideen · Hezbollah · Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan · Lashkar-e-Taiba


Conflicts Operation
Enduring Freedom War in Afghanistan · OEF - Philippines · Georgia Train and Equip Program · Georgia Sustainment and Stability · OEF - Horn of Africa · OEF - Trans Sahara · Missile strikes in Pakistan

Other Insurgency in the Maghreb · Iraq insurgency and operations · Insurgency in Saudi Arabia · War in North-West Pakistan · South Thailand insurgency · Lebanon War · War in Somalia · Lebanon-Fatah al-Islam conflict


Islamist
attacks 2001–2002 September 11 attacks · Bahawalpur church attack · Indian Parliament attack · Shoe bomb plot · Ghriba synagogue bombing · Karachi bus bomb · Jaunpur train crash · Karachi US Consulate bombing · Akshardham Temple attack · 1st Bali bombing · Zamboanga bombings · Kurnool train crash

2003–2004 Riyadh compound bombings · Casablanca bombings · 2003 Mumbai bombings · Jakarta Marriott Hotel bombing · Istanbul bombings · SuperFerry 14 bombing · Madrid train bombings · Khobar massacre · Beslan school hostage crisis · Jakarta Australian embassy bombing

2005–2006 1st London bombings · 2nd London bombings · Sharm el-Sheikh attacks · 2nd Bali bombing · 1st Delhi bombings · Amman bombings · 2006 Varanasi bombings · 2006 Mumbai train bombings · Transatlantic aircraft plot · Toronto terrorism plot

2007–2008 1st Algiers bombings · Fort Dix attack plot · Ankara bombing · London car bomb plot · Glasgow Airport attack · 2007 Yemen tourist attack · Hyderabad bombings · Qahtaniya bombings · Karachi bombing · Baghlan bombing · Philippine Congress bombing · 2nd Algiers bombings · Assassination of Benazir Bhutto · Jaipur bombings · Danish embassy · Indian embassy · United States consulate · Bangalore bombings-Ahmedabad · 2nd Delhi bombings · American embassy · Islamabad bombing · 3rd Delhi bombing · 2008 Assam bombings · 2008 Mumbai attacks

2009–current Attack on Sri Lankan cricket team · 2009 Yemen tourist attack · 2009 Lahore bombing · Pearl Continental hotel bombing · Jakarta bombings


See also Abu Ghraib prison · Axis of evil · Bush Doctrine · CIA run Black sites · Combatant Status Review Tribunal · Enhanced interrogation techniques · Extrajudicial prisoners of the US · Extraordinary rendition · Guantanamo Bay detention camp · Military Commissions Act · NSA electronic surveillance program · President's Surveillance Program · Protect America Act of 2007 · Unitary executive theory · Unlawful combatant · USA PATRIOT Act

Terrorism · War



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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Terrorism".

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Web results from the major search engines

Federal Bureau of Investigation Most Wanted Terrorists
Photos and profiles of people sought in connection with indictments for terrorism.
http://www.fbi.gov/wanted/terrorists/fugitives.htm
Terrorism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
After the Jacobins lost power, the word "terrorist" became a term of abuse. ... Terrorists also attack national symbols, to show power and to attempt to ...
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List of designated terrorist organizations - Wikipedia, the free ...
This is a list of designated terrorist organizations by national governments and inter-governmental organizations, where the proscription has a significant ...
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With Terrorists at Amazon
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Most Wanted Terrorist - Usama Bin Laden
The United States Government is offering a reward of up to $5 million for information leading directly to the apprehension or conviction of Usama Bin Laden.
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CrimeLibrary.com/Terrorists, Spies & Assassins/Terrorists
A fascinating study of the religious terrorist cult that attracted some of Japan's brightest young people and created a billion dollars in assets, ...
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YouTube - If I Were A Terrorist A James Pence Video!
Outstanding. Tell'n it like it is, you know you're doing something right when the braindead mushheaded know-nothings who let it all happen resent you for being so quick with the ...
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The Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR ...
Identity and Immigration Status of 9/11 Terrorists ... One of the terrorists, Mohamed Atta, was detained in Florida for driving without ...
http://www.fairus.org/site/PageServer?pagename=iic_immigrationissuecen…
Definition of Terrorist
Definition of "Terrorist": Let's Have Some Clarity ... October 5, 2001 ... "Terrorist" is a word used so often and so loosely that it has lost a clear meaning.
http://www.therationalradical.com/dsep/terrorist-definition.htm
Generation Terrorists
Sep 17, 2009 ... Collection of humorous and serious quotations arranged into categories.
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Terrorist Definition | Definition of Terrorist at Dictionary.com
Copy & paste this link to your blog or website to reference this page
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Terrorists and the Internet - Council on Foreign Relations
This article describes how terrorists have cultivated the web to suit their needs. ... Are there any prominent online terrorists? ...
http://www.cfr.org/publication/10005/
Wikipedia censors Bilderberg's Nazi roots - http://217.72.179.7
"The High Priests of Globalisation"Will Hutton; Transatlantic power élite's secret Bilderberg conferences & ... US and UK terrorists crushing Iraqi spirit; Who said NeoCons weren't Nazis?
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Terrorist: Definition from Answers.com
terrorist n. One that engages in acts or an act of terrorism. adj. Of or relating to terrorism. terroristic ter ' roris ' tic
www.answers.com/topic/terrorist
Amazon.com: Schmoozing With Terrorists: From Hollywood to the Holy ...
Amazon.com: Schmoozing With Terrorists: From Hollywood to the Holy Land, Jihadists Reveal Their Global Plans— to a Jew! (9780979045127): Aaron Klein: Books.
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Total Intelligence Solutions, LLC ::
Website Migrated (July 21, 2009) (CLICK FOR MORE INFO) ... Founded in 1996, the Terrorism Research Center, Inc. ... ; Will Terrorists Go Nuclear?
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Terrorist legal definition of terrorist. terrorist synonyms by the ...
The unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property in order to coerce or intimidate a government or the civilian population in furtherance of political or social ...
legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/terrorist
ETA - Council on Foreign Relations
A profile of ETA, a terrorist separatist group operating in the Basque regions of Spain and France. ... Spain, Terrorism, Terrorist Organizations. ISN Security ...
http://www.cfr.org/publication/9271
The Terrorist Enemy
Terrorist networks currently pose the greatest national security threat to the United States. The greatest threat and the most wanted terrorists come from ...
http://www.state.gov/s/ct/enemy/index.htm
Rewards for Justice-main - english
SUBMIT A TIP ... Seeking Information Against International Terrorism ... Wanted Terrorists
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Terrorism: West's Encyclopedia of American Law (Full Article ...
terrorism n. The unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence by a ... One of the first recorded doctrinaire terrorists was Carlo Pisacane, Duke of San ...
http://www.answers.com/topic/terrorism
What Makes a Terrorist — The American, A Magazine of ...
It’s not poverty and lack of education, according to economic research by Princeton’s ALAN KRUEGER. Look elsewhere.
www.american.com/archive/2007/november-december-magazine-contents/what…
Who Are the 'Terrorists'? by Murray N. Rothbard
Yet who the terrorists are supposed to be remains vague and shadowy. Their only apparent common characteristic is that they are swarthy and foreign; ...
http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard110.html
September 11 News.com - September 11, 2001 News Archives - The 9/11
Archives of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack on America at the World Trade Center Towers in New York City and The Pentagon in Washington. ... Complete International Archives of September 11,
http://www.september11news.com/
Terrorism - Conservapedia
6 Groups Considered by the United States to be Terrorist Organizations. 7 Groups directly or indirectly supporting terrorists. 8 Groups receiving CIA support ...
http://www.conservapedia.com/Terrorist
The Terrorist Summary and Analysis Summary
The Terrorist summary with 55 pages of encyclopedia entries, essays, summaries, research information, and more.
www.bookrags.com/The_Terrorist
terrorists news and articles
Following deplorable attacks in London, pharmaceuticals are still more deadly than terrorists. 7/7/2005 - Just days after we posted an article on the ...
http://www.naturalnews.com/terrorists.html
Islamic terrorism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Islamic terrorist acts have included airline hijacking, kidnapping, ... FBI Updates Most Wanted Terrorists and Seeking Information – War on Terrorism ...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_terrorism
Terrorists - Hutchinson encyclopedia article about Terrorists
terrorism. Systematic violence in the furtherance of political aims, often by small guerrilla groups. Types of terrorism Terrorist groups include those dedicated to a political ...
encyclopedia.farlex.com/Terrorists
Country Reports on Terrorism 2005
Terrorists continued ... international terrorists as part of the security mission ... A system of clandestine support networks funneled foreign terrorists to Iraq from ...
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/65462.pdf
Explore GovDocs | MLibrary
Comprehensive directory covering the September 11th attack, previous and post attacks, counterterrorism, terrorism in and from other countries, background research and related links. ... January 23, 2002
http://www.lib.umich.edu/govdocs/usterror.html
DefenseLink News Article: Rumsfeld on Terrorists: Drain the ...
The secretary warned of a long process to fight terrorist threats against the United States. ... If we do that the terrorists will have won. ...
http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=44863
The Baptist Standard :: The Newsmagazine of Texas Baptists - Home
Joomla - the dynamic portal engine and content management system, A Southern Baptist pastor from Oklahoma compared his fellow conservatives’ treatment of women in ministry to earlier generations ...
http://www.baptiststandard.com/
Heritage Event: Thwarting Terrorists While Protecting ...
Thwarting Terrorists While Protecting Innocents: The Material Support and Related Provisions of the Immigration and Nationality Act
http://www.heritage.org/Press/Events/ev041107a.cfm
ABC News Exclusive: The Secret War Against Iran - The Blotter
The group, called Jundullah, is made up of members of the Baluchi tribe and operates out of the Baluchistan province in Pakistan, ... Either way we are supporting terrorists in the war on terror.
http://blogs.abcnews.com/theblotter/2007/04/abc_news_exclus.html
Terror changes course, with the same deadly results | The ...
THE terrorist attacks in Mumbai occurred just two months after the Marriott ... It is now clear that jihadi terrorists have the capability to attack Westerners ...
http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,24730484-7583,00.ht…
Frank Rich: If Terrorists Rock The Vote In 2008
DON'T fault Charles Black, the John McCain adviser, for publicly stating his honest belief that a domestic terrorist attack would be "a big advantage" for their ...
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/06/29/frank-rich-if-terrorists_n_10…
The Terrorists Are Winning
While terrorists might have long-range objectives, like overthrowing the ... Terrorists acts are also designed to sow confusion and fear in a chosen ...
http://www.antiwar.com/bock/b032702.html
Should IDF shoot terrorists holding soldier captive ...
Should IDF shoot terrorists holding soldier captive? -News and commentary relating to events in Israel, the occupied territories, and the world, along with an ...
http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=1113568&contrass…
Ennahar Online - 10 terrorists' bunkers destroyed in the ...
10 terrorists' bunkers destroyed in the forest of Frina' in Chlef ... Terrorists, they say, lives their last days in the forest of Frina, especially ...
http://www.ennaharonline.com/en/news/674.html
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